HUMANS IN THE CROSSFIRE – HOW CLIMATE CHANGE HURTS PEOPLE

Author : AM Tris Hardyanto

When the heat rises, it is not just the planet that burns, it is lives, livelihoods, and entire futures. Children fall ill, jobs vanish, schools close, and cultures erode, all in the shadows of climate change. It is not a future scenario; it is the unfolding reality. Moreover, those hit hardest are not the ones who caused it.

Introduction

Climate change is no longer a far-off threat described in scientific projections; it is a daily emergency unfolding across every continent. Its impacts seep into our lungs, classrooms, paychecks, and homes. The poorest bear the brunt, the vulnerable face compounding risks, and our systems built for yesterday's stability are collapsing under today's extremes. The article is a call to confront the quiet devastation behind rising temperatures and to reframe climate change as not just an environmental issue, but a profound social and moral crisis. As you read these stories, ask not only what is happening, but why, and what justice demands from us.

Climate change is increasingly recognised not only as an environmental crisis but also as a significant social and moral challenge, particularly affecting vulnerable populations. The poorest communities, often with limited resources, disproportionately experience the negative impacts of climate change, manifesting in health vulnerabilities, economic challenges, and increased migration pressures (Grecequet et al., 2017; Khine & Langkulsen, 2023). Research indicates that marginalised groups face compounded risks, stemming from inadequate adaptation strategies and socio-economic inequalities ("The Impact of Climate Change on Vulnerable Populations", 2023; Ncube et al., 2016).

 

For instance, health impacts such as stress, anxiety, and mental health crises have been documented among these populations, highlighting the need for comprehensive adaptation policies that acknowledge social justice (White et al., 2023; Sanni et al., 2022). Furthermore, climate change disproportionately affects marginalised groups by exacerbating existing disparities, particularly in regions where poverty intersects with climate vulnerability (Benveniste et al., 2020; Strand et al., 2010). Necessitates a reframing of climate change discussions to incorporate justice demands and ensure that adaptation initiatives also address systemic inequalities (Samson et al., 2011; Confalonieri et al., 2009).

1         Heatwaves, Disease, and Public Health

The air grows hotter. The poor grow sicker. Moreover, the system breaks quietly under the sun.

1.1      The Day the Heat Came for Children

Fatima, only nine years old, has learned to avoid the sun like a predator. In her rooftop flat in Cairo, she does not play outside after 10 a.m.—the pavement sears bare feet like iron. Her mother now boils water not for cooking but for wiping down her feverish baby brother when the electricity fails. Last summer, the child was rushed to the hospital. The diagnosis: heatstroke complicated by dehydration. "The heat is no longer just uncomfortable," her mother says. "It is dangerous." 

Similar tragedies unfold across the globe. In 2024, a week-long heatwave in India claimed more than 2,300 lives, primarily outdoor labourers, street vendors, and the elderly. Many of these deaths went unreported. In cooler highland regions, such as Amina's village, malaria reemerged with deadly consequences as temperatures soared to 48°C.

These children are not isolated cases; they are the early casualties of a worsening crisis. Their stories reflect how climate change weaponised weather against the world's most vulnerable.

1.2      Heat as a Catalyst for Disease

Heat is more than an inconvenience—it multiplies suffering. Rising temperatures enable disease-carrying vectors like mosquitoes to thrive in previously inhospitable regions. Dengue, Zika, chikungunya, and malaria have expanded their reach, especially into communities ill-equipped to respond (World Health Organisation [WHO], 2022).

Low-income areas suffer disproportionately. Their hospitals buckle under surging patient loads from heatstroke, respiratory illness, and waterborne infections. These communities often lack access to cooling systems, clean water, and basic sanitation, all of which are critical for health resilience (Arpin et al., 2021; Kumar et al., 2024).

In many urban slums and rural villages, healthcare infrastructure is already fragile. Climate change transforms public health from a stable service into a battleground. It erodes the capacity to protect the most basic human right: the right to health. 

1.3      The Geography of Health Inequality

Climate and Comorbidity: In India's Bihar state, a 2023 study showed that patients with diabetes or asthma were five times more likely to die during heatwaves, due to power outages disrupting medication storage and emergency access.

Heat impacts people unequally. Wealth allows escape: air conditioning, insulated homes, access to green spaces, and premium healthcare. Poverty offers no such buffer. According to Watts et al. (2023), socio-economic vulnerability heightens exposure and delays recovery, creating a deadly disparity.

From 2030 to 2050, the WHO estimates climate change will result in 250,000 additional deaths annually due to heat stress, malnutrition, and vector-borne diseases. The majority of these deaths will occur in developing nations (WHO, 2022). These figures, while alarming, fail to capture the full trauma: the futures lost, the dreams deferred, the families watching helplessly as their loved ones succumb to an invisible, relentless threat.

Health outcomes increasingly reflect income levels. Public health has become temperature-sensitive. The thermometer now acts as a predictor of survival. 

1.4      When Public Health Systems Collapse

In cities like Karachi, Cairo, and Jakarta, hospitals are already stretched thin. Prolonged heat waves overwhelm morgues, deplete IV fluids, and delay ambulance services. Healthcare workers face exhaustion and burnout, while climate-induced mental health disorders climb steadily (Dasgupta et al., 2023).

Emergency rooms report spikes in heat-related illnesses, yet chronic underfunding hinders response. Facilities designed for moderate climates crumble under extreme weather. Mental health, already stigmatised in many societies, deteriorates further as children and the elderly experience anxiety, PTSD, and social withdrawal.

 Ongoing crisis forces systems into reactive mode. Instead of being prepared, healthcare operates on an emergency footing. As the temperature rises, death tolls climb—not only from heat, but from the cascading failures it triggers. The systems meant to heal are themselves falling ill. 

1.5      When Air Turns Against Us

Heatwaves once marked seasonal discomfort. Today, they signal systemic failure. They endanger survival and magnify injustice.

Fatima, Amina, and countless others now live at the intersection of vulnerability and extreme heat. Their futures are shaped not solely by emissions, but by inequality. The quiet heat that slips through windows, classrooms, and lungs does more than raise body temperatures—it exposes the fragility of our public systems and the skewed priorities of our societies.

Public health in the era of climate change is no longer just a medical issue; it is a justice issue. Addressing these challenges requires integrated strategies: improving healthcare infrastructure, incorporating climate data into health planning, and ensuring that aid reaches those most in need (Abbassy et al., 2024; Dasgupta et al., 2023).

Solutions must not only mitigate heat impacts but also correct systemic inequities. Without justice at the heart of climate adaptation, technology and policy will only widen the gap. Community engagement, local knowledge integration, and sustained investment in resilience are essential to transform vulnerability into strength (Andrijevic et al., 2020).

As temperatures rise, the real test is not technological—it is moral. Can we ensure that no one is left to burn in silence?

 

2        Jobs, Economy, and Inequality

Climate change negatively affects labour markets, increasing inequality and vulnerability among populations. Climate-induced labour disruption particularly affects workers in developing regions, where informal employment is prevalent and social safety nets are minimal. The chapter will delve into how environmental downturns displace workers, exacerbate inflationary pressures, and contribute to widening economic disparities. 

2.1       When the Waters Take More Than Homes

We begin with the case of Rehana from Dhaka, whose story illustrates how climate events can strip communities of both their homes and means of income. As outlined, her factory's temporary closure due to flooding resulted in mass layoffs that left vulnerable workers like Rehana in economic despair. The ILO (International Labour Organisation) emphasises that one of the most severe impacts of climate change is the sudden disappearance of jobs, particularly in sectors like manufacturing, which often employ many low-skilled workers. People in poorer neighbourhoods face greater vulnerability because they cannot access resources for recovery, leading to an entrenched cycle of poverty that is less visible in wealthier districts where infrastructure is better equipped to handle climate shocks (Antonelli et al., 2020).

The displacement following natural disasters such as floods serves both as a microcosm of larger economic trends and a harbinger of the looming challenges facing workers globally. Urban areas can exhibit stark contrasts in resilience levels, highlighting persistent inequalities. Studies illustrate that affluent populations can effectively insulate themselves from climate impacts, thus perpetuating systemic disparities where the wealthy thrive while the poor face incessant struggle (Otrachshenko & Popova, 2021). 

2.2      Climate Collapses Workforces

The International Labour Organisation predicts that rising global temperatures may lead to a loss equivalent to 80 million full-time jobs by the year 2030, which underscores the immediate economic threats posed by climate change (Assaad et al., 2017). Outdoor workers, especially those in agriculture, construction, and informal sectors, are affected by heat stress, which Studies show significantly reduces productivity. Analysts anticipate that heat-related income losses will disproportionately affect populations in developing nations, where such labour is most concentrated (Autor et al., 2017).

Empirical studies reveal that in urban areas like Lagos, severe weather events such as droughts have led to soaring food prices, forcing families into dire situations where they must choose between basic sustenance and precarious work opportunities (Baptista et al., 2024). Labour fragmentation creates a dynamic where entire communities can swiftly transition from stability to chaos, lacking the infrastructure necessary to support employment continuity in the face of climate-related shocks. The ramifications extend beyond mere economic slowdown; they fundamentally reshape labour markets and jeopardise the livelihoods of the most vulnerable populations, disintegrating the economic fabric of these communities (Meyer & Vasey, 2018). 

2.3      The Inflation Burden and Broken Markets

Market analyses have concluded that climate disruptions initiate sequences of market failures, including the destruction of critical infrastructure, losses in productivity, and rising insurance costs ("Economic impact of climate change", 2023). is illustrated in Nigeria, where an inflation spike rooted in agricultural disruption pushed staple goods beyond the reach of ordinary citizens, evidencing how climate change indirectly exacerbates poverty (Wei et al., 2024). Market mechanisms that might typically absorb such shocks falter under the weight of simultaneous compounding crises, leaving poorer populations exceedingly vulnerable while wealthier individuals can absorb the shocks through adaptive measures such as relocation or investment in disaster preparedness initiatives (Chanana & Aggarwal, 2018).

The observed inflation dynamics form a compelling case study where climate change not only poses direct economic threats through crop failures but also engenders long-term market distortions that particularly burden low-income communities (Nasution et al., 2024). Existing disparities thus become amplified, leading to what some economists characterise as "survival inequality," wherein the ability to adapt to climate threats is unequally distributed (Baptista et al., 2024). 

2.4      The Deepening Divide: Climate Apartheid

As climate-induced economic inequalities deepen, the concept of "climate apartheid" emerges, where individuals from affluent backgrounds secure resources and protection to navigate climate crises while marginalised populations face escalating hardships. The World Bank has projected that by 2030, Climate-related income losses could push over 130 million more individuals into extreme poverty as a direct consequence of climate-related income losses (S. et al., 2023). The warning illustrates the disproportionate economic burdens faced by the poorest segments of the global population, who, despite contributing minimal greenhouse gas emissions, are affected the most due to their limited resilience and adaptive capacity ("Economic impact of climate change", 2023).

Research highlights that even a marginal temperature increase can reduce GDP growth in low-income countries while wealthier nations often profit from industries capitalising on climate responses, such as insurance and infrastructure development (Matsumoto et al., 2021). The persistent inequalities mirrored in climate policies further solidify the fractures within global economies, ultimately leading to a humanitarian crisis where the most vulnerable remain unprotected and unheard (Giotis, 2024). 

2.5      When Jobs Dies, So Does Dignity

Dignity evaporates not just with a lost job, but with the silent realisation that no system was ever built to protect you. The narratives around job loss extend beyond mere financial instability; they encompass profound psychological and social ramifications. For workers like Amina's father from Lagos and Rehana from Dhaka, job losses signal the erosion of identity, routine, and self-worth, driving many into migration—a process often depicted not as a choice but a necessity for survival (Jain et al., 2022). The pattern of economic despair manifesting as social distress reveals a complex interconnectivity among rapidly deteriorating labour conditions, societal unrest, and increasing instances of gender-based violence (Jessoe et al., 2017).

Moreover, with job losses driving families to migrate, communities suffer from the fragmentation of familial structures and social cohesion (Sun et al., 2024). Displacement becomes not just an individual experience but signifies a collective crisis where entire communities grapple with the dual burdens of economic disenfranchisement and social disintegration, further fueling a cycle of vulnerability towards climate impacts (Ullah, 2023).

As we have seen, the unfolding narrative of climate change reflects an urgent need for international dialogue focused on equitable adaptation strategies that address immediate economic losses and work to rectify the broader systemic injustices underpinning labour market disparities in a changing climate. The stories of individuals affected by these forces of nature should ignite an international resolve to mitigate and adapt to these escalating challenges, lest we see the complete disintegration of livelihoods and communities. Outcome is no longer a distant possibility but rather an immediate reality. 

2.6      The Corporate Shield vs. Workers' Exposure

While workers faint in fields, insurance companies see windfall profits from climate-linked products. The same system that causes the crisis monetises its aftermath. Large agribusinesses now purchase climate futures to protect crops, while farmers toil with no safety net.

The stark disparity between the profitability of agribusiness and the hardships faced by farmers in a climate crisis showcases an inequitable system where those generating wealth often do not shoulder the corresponding risks. Large agribusinesses are increasingly leveraging financial products such as climate futures to mitigate the adverse impacts of climate change on their operations, thereby securing their profitability (Haro et al., 2021). This corporate strategy highlights a systemic failure where the economic benefits gained from climate exploitation simultaneously exacerbate the vulnerabilities of smallholder farmers, who often lack sufficient safety nets to cope with extreme weather events or fluctuating market conditions (Lindberg et al., 2023; Mohapatra et al., 2022). 

Moreover, while farmers labour under increasingly precarious conditions, the structures that profit from climate-related crises often divert attention from the necessary investments in resilience for these farmers (Kondal et al., 2024). The unequal policies favouring agribusinesses undermine the agricultural community's capacities, thus necessitating a reevaluation of priorities within agricultural governance (Costa et al., 2019; Parron et al., 2022). As the climate crisis continues to unfold, it is essential to advocate for equitable solutions that prioritise the protection of vulnerable populations, rather than allowing profit motives to dictate the response to their suffering (Belesky & Malinowski, 2016; Biber‐Freudenberger et al., 2016).

3         Forced Migration and Lost Homes

The phenomenon of forced migration, increasingly driven by climate change, continues to rise, causing significant humanitarian crises across the globe. Natural disasters such as floods, droughts, and rising sea levels displace individuals out of necessity. The chapter delves into the implications of climate-induced migration, highlighting personal narratives and broader implications that elucidate the gravity of the urgent issue. 

3.1      The Village That Vanished

Amina's story exemplifies the stark realities faced by many individuals in regions susceptible to climate change. In southern Mozambique, she found her village ravaged by droughts, rendering her previously fertile lands into parched earth and depriving her of essential resources, including crops and water. Her departure, characterised by a burden of Loss rather than hope, reflects the experiences of millions compelled to flee due to climate disruptions. The Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC) reports that approximately 26 million people are displaced annually by climate-related disasters, demonstrating the scale of the crisis and illustrating how climate change creates dire living conditions that force individuals to seek refuge elsewhere (Oklikah et al., 2023).

Research indicates that the emotional and psychological impacts of such relocations can be profound, as individuals grapple with leaving their homes and the Loss of identity and community. Amina's migration to Nairobi, where she resides in precarious conditions, amplifies sentiment as she navigates a space marked by unfamiliarity and hardship. The deep-rooted connections to place and community underscore the reality that what is lost in migration extends beyond material possessions, encompassing heritage and collective memory (Parrish et al., 2020). 

3.2      The Invisible Refugees of the Climate Crisis

The plight of climate refugees contrasts sharply with the protections afforded to those fleeing armed conflicts. Despite the increasing number of individuals displaced by climate change, a comprehensive international legal framework currently does not exist to safeguard their rights as refugees. According to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), the absence of a universally recognised classification for climate migrants leaves them vulnerable to exploitation and neglect (Daalen et al., 2021). Moreover, slow-onset displacement, as seen in coastal cities like Jakarta and Miami, exemplifies how rising sea levels and gradual habitat degradation can create precarious living conditions where legal protections lag significantly behind the physical reality.

In Bangladesh, Climate disasters compel entire communities to relocate and abandon their homes in the delta regions, while Pacific Island nations like Kiribati and Tuvalu confront existential threats posed by climate change. Environmental degradation, such as soil salinisation, undermines livelihoods and erodes cultural practices and identities (Kalantari et al., 2024). As Inuit communities watch their lands thaw, the tension between climate change impacts and cultural sustainability becomes a pressing issue. The erosion of identity and sovereignty indicates that climate change operates on multiple levels, affecting not only the physical space but also the very essence of cultural existence. 

3.3      Fragile Cities and Fractured Communities

The majority of displaced individuals do not cross national borders but migrate to urban centres already burdened by their socio-economic challenges. Cities like Nairobi, Dhaka, and Karachi experience increased pressure as influxes of climate-displaced individuals compound existing social tensions. These urban environments, strained by resource scarcity, often see the formation of slums where new arrivals grapple with insufficient access to essential services, including sanitation and education (Tabe, 2019). Unfolding scenario creates a crisis of climate justice, as economic disparities continue to fester, fueling potential conflicts between local populations and newcomers.

The intersection of migration and urbanisation resulting from climate change constitutes a new frontline in social struggles. With landlords capitalising on housing demand, rental costs can skyrocket, further marginalising both migrants and existing residents. Fundamental rights to water, education, and other resources become rationed commodities, exacerbating the vulnerabilities faced by these groups (Benveniste et al., 2020). Consequently, climate migration does not merely introduce new challenges; it reshapes existing societal crises in alarming and multifaceted ways.

Unlike war refugees, climate migrants lack legal status under the 1951 Refugee Convention—trapped between rising tides and disappearing protections. Climate migrants face a significant paradox: while their need for displacement due to environmental factors is clear, they lack the legal protections afforded to war refugees under the 1951 Refugee Convention. This absence of legal status renders them particularly vulnerable as they confront the dual challenges of rising environmental pressures and inadequate legislative recognition (Streeter & Cloward, 2022; Hedegaard, 2023; Wilcox, 2021). Unlike traditional refugees who flee persecution, climate migrants are often categorised as "economic migrants," thereby being explicitly excluded from receiving asylum based on environmental conditions (Adman et al., 2024); (Narayanan et al., 2023). 

The legal void surrounding climate migration has considerable implications not only for the migrants themselves but also for global governance, as states navigate the challenges of integrating these individuals into existing asylum frameworks (Cheng et al., 2024; UDREA, 2023). Effective policy responses are urgently needed to establish a coherent classification for climate migrants that acknowledges their unique circumstances and provides the necessary protections—solutions that are currently lacking (Bauder, 2021). The lack of explicit legal recognition emphasises the need for a transformative approach toward international refugee policy that adapts to the realities of climate-induced migration (Narayanan et al., 2023). 

3.4      Future Forecast: 1.2 Billion in Motion

Looking ahead, the potential scale of climate-induced displacement is staggering. By 2050, Researchers project that up to 1.2 billion people could be displaced due to uninhabitable land, desertification, and rising sea levels (Cubelo, 2023). anticipated movement represents not merely a singular event but an extended period of instability that will interact with other global challenges, including housing shortages and resource distribution crises. Without concerted and inclusive policies, alongside robust legal frameworks, climate displacement could evolve into a continual emergency, creating scenarios ripe for social breakdown as communities become increasingly fragmented.

Crucial to addressing these challenges is the recognition that climate migration presents not only future concerns but immediate injustices that require urgent responses. The facilitation of resilient infrastructure and inclusive policies must form core elements of a strategic approach to mitigate the effects of climate-induced migration, protecting those most vulnerable to displacement and Loss (Akinbami, 2021). 

3.5      What Cannot Be Carried?

Ultimately, climate pressures force individuals like Amina to leave what they leave behind transcends material possessions—it embodies their heritage, cultural identity, and memory of belonging. The emotional weight of departure highlights the human cost of climate change: families confront the reality of leaving behind graves, ancestral lands, customs, and languages. Amina struggles to maintain her cultural identity as her children adapt to a new society that speaks a different language (Nawrotzki et al., 2015). Such experiences are not uncommon, as displaced individuals navigate the intricate processes of assimilation while mourning their lost homes and identities.

The implications of Loss are profound, as transitioning into a new community often means relinquishing past connections and establishing oneself anew amidst unfamiliar surroundings. Migration should not be seen solely as a desperate act, but rather as a manifestation of exhaustion in the face of diminishing options (Cui & Feng, 2020). Therefore, as the world continues to grapple with escalating climate challenges, the discourse surrounding climate migration must include the stories of those impacted, ensuring they are not rendered invisible in our collective understanding of the pressing phenomenon.

In conclusion, addressing climate-induced migration necessitates a multifaceted approach that considers the complex interplay of environmental change, socio-economic status, and cultural identity. Strategies must prioritise the dignity and rights of displaced individuals, simultaneously acknowledging the urgent humanitarian needs they represent. As Amina's journey illustrates, climate migration is not merely a statistic or trend but the narrative of real people facing tremendous upheaval.

 

3.6       Hostile Hosts: Rise of Xenophobia in Climate-Driven Migration

In South Africa, anti-migrant violence has targeted Zimbabwean climate refugees. In Jakarta's informal settlements, inter-communal tensions are rising as rural migrants compete for space and services. Without social integration strategies, climate migration may deepen xenophobia and instability.

The intersection of climate-induced migration and social tensions underscores a pressing issue in regions like South Africa and Jakarta. Competition for scarce resources can exacerbate anti-migrant violence. In South Africa, communities have documented violence against Zimbabwean migrants, illustrating how environmental pressures can fuel xenophobia among already strained communities (Grecequet et al., 2017; Sim-Sarka, 2025). In Jakarta's informal settlements, rural migrants often compete for limited space and public services, contributing to rising inter-communal tensions (Oklikah et al., 2023; Arias & Blair, 2024).

Without adequate social integration strategies, climate migration can deepen these societal fractures, turning vulnerable populations into scapegoats amid broader economic and environmental crises (McMichael, 2015; Ebrahimi & Ossewaarde, 2019). As tensions escalate, the need for inclusive policies that facilitate migrant integration and promote social cohesion becomes urgent. Such policies could mitigate the risk of xenophobia and instability, ensuring that Policymakers increasingly recognise climate migration not merely as a challenge but as an opportunity for community enrichment and resilience (Ebrahimi & Ossewaarde, 2019; Frei et al., 2024).

 

4         Education and Mental Health

The intersection of climate change with education and mental health offers profound insights into how environmental factors influence individual and community well-being. As climate-related disasters escalate, Climate-related disasters significantly disrupt educational infrastructures and jeopardise the future of affected youth. 

4.1      A Classroom Under a Tree

In northern Pakistan, floods can devastate communities, transforming the learning environment for children like 13-year-old Samina. Her experience highlights a broader narrative reflected in regions adversely affected by climate change. Samina's attempt to continue her education under a neem tree, amidst anxiety about her lost textbooks and disrupted friendships, exemplifies how climate emergencies impede both physical learning and emotional stability (Filho et al., 2022). The psychological implications of such trauma can be profound; children may develop ongoing fears related to environmental phenomena, which can alter their relationship with education and community (Bhawra et al., 2024).

The educational landscape, once viewed as a robust pillar of society, can become a casualty of climate-induced disruptions. There is an urgent need for educational strategies to adapt and accommodate those impacted by these crises (Chen et al., 2025). As climate change intertwines with socio-economic challenges, educational systems must foster resilience and recovery amidst such upheaval (Hayes et al., 2019). 

4.2      When the School Gates Close Forever 

Amina, now living in Nairobi, has faced a two-year interruption in her education, emblematic of the plight experienced by countless climate-displaced children worldwide. A research report indicates that 40% of climate-displaced children in Africa may drop out of school permanently, emphasising the severe consequences of such educational disruptions (Charlson et al., 2021). Climate change often compels families into survival mode; Families often deprioritise education in favour of immediate needs such as food and safety. Loss of educational opportunities is associated with a significant decrease in lifetime earnings, estimated at approximately 9% per year for each lost year of school (Gislason et al., 2021).

The digital divide in emergency learning highlights a significant disparity in access to educational resources between regions, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa. A UNESCO report indicates that only 11% of displaced children in Sub-Saharan Africa could access digital learning opportunities during crises, a stark contrast to 94% in OECD countries (Kumi‐Yeboah et al., 2024). This disparity underscores the critical issue of unequal access to digital technology and internet connectivity, severely limiting educational opportunities in emergencies for vulnerable populations (Cariolle, 2021). 

In Sub-Saharan Africa, the challenges include inadequate infrastructure and the limited affordability of internet services, which hamper not only basic education but also the effective communication of vital information during crises (Aboye et al., 2024). The COVID-19 pandemic further exacerbated existing inequalities in digital access, revealing the vulnerabilities of educational systems that rely heavily on technology (Odunga, 2024). Without targeted interventions aimed at bridging this digital gap, the risk of educational setbacks for displaced children is likely to persist, perpetuating cycles of poverty and limiting future opportunities in an increasingly digital world (Karamagi et al., 2022).

Educational interruptions not only have economic ramifications but also deepen the cycle of poverty, locking families into patterns of disadvantage that can persist across generations (Aylward et al., 2024). The prospect of children entering the workforce to support their families exacerbates systemic inequalities, often hindering their ability to return to education (Pirkle et al., 2022).

 

4.3      Climate Grief: A Silent Emergency

The emotional toll arising from climate change is as critical as its physical impacts. Children in climate-affected regions exhibit increased instances of psychological issues such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), anxiety, and depression. Research highlights a significant rise in youth climate anxiety, with effects documented in various contexts (Sayama et al., 2025). These mental health challenges can impair cognitive functions essential for learning, significantly undermining a child's ability to engage in educational settings. Furthermore, long-term consequences of emotional distress can affect brain development and overall psychological well-being, which are not typically adequately addressed through conventional educational recovery programs (Gunasiri et al., 2024).

In low-income countries, the scarcity of mental health support services leaves children recovering from climate-induced disasters especially vulnerable. In chaotic environments such as refugee camps, the therapeutic needs of children are often overlooked (Garavito et al., 2024). There is an urgent need to integrate psychological support systems into emergency response frameworks to address the persistent traumatic effects on youth (Middleton et al., 2020).

Children displaced by climate-related disasters, such as floods in Uganda, often experience profound psychological distress, which can manifest as nightmares and feelings of abandonment. This situation raises concerns regarding climate grief and its potential to inflict intergenerational trauma. Untreated psychological trauma in children can have compounding effects that extend into adulthood, negatively affecting mental health and overall well-being (Im & Swan, 2021; Disney & McPherson, 2020).

Research underscores the need for cultural responsiveness in trauma-informed care, particularly for refugee populations facing unique stressors related to displacement (Disney & McPherson, 2020; Newaz & Riediger, 2020). Professionals serving these communities must develop frameworks that address both the immediate psychological impacts and the long-term implications of trauma (Im & Swan, 2021). Furthermore, initiatives aimed at integrating mental health care access and social support systems are essential to mitigate the lasting effects of climate grief on future generations (Benjamen et al., 2021; Horswood et al., 2019). These approaches are critical for fostering resilience and promoting mental health in communities that have faced the dual challenges of environmental upheaval and forced migration (Mazumdar et al., 2022; DeSa et al., 2022). 

4.4      Girls, Gender, and Disproportionate Burdens

Climate change has disproportionately severe impacts on girls' education, exacerbating existing gender inequities. Once schools close, girls are frequently removed from the classroom to assist with household duties or are married off young to alleviate economic burdens. Crises compound the risk, leading to heightened exposure to gender-based violence and reproductive health concerns (Hayes et al., 2018). Reports indicate alarming trends in regions like the Sahel, Pacific Islands, and South Asia, where girls' access to education is severely limited due to socio-economic pressures, often resulting in permanent withdrawal from schooling (Soomro et al., 2024).

Supporting girls' education during climate crises should be a central component of efforts to combat gender inequality and its cascading injustices (Goudet et al., 2023). Amina's story illustrates that each girl deprived of education not only represents an individual loss but also a setback for communities striving for equitable development (Goudet et al., 2024). Educating girls promotes social equity and empowers them to become agents of change within their communities. 

4.5      The Crisis Is not Just Physical—It is Emotional, Generational.

The consequences of interrupted education and untreated trauma extend across generations. Children raised in the aftermath of climate disasters exhibit lower rates of school completion, reduced coping mechanisms, and are likely to carry unresolved trauma into adulthood. These factors hinder community resilience and impact societal progress as a whole (Hayes & Poland, 2018). For youth caught in the cycle of climate emergencies, the inability to dream or heal can dismantle the foundations of future societal success, leading to profound socio-emotional crises that require substantial intervention (Sharpe & Davison, 2022).

Climate change does not solely destroy infrastructure; it actively undermines the development of human capital and erodes both individual potential and collective resilience (White et al., 2023). The chronic stress associated with eco-anxiety can lead to maladaptive behaviours that threaten the hope of future generations (Berry & Peel, 2015). Addressing crisis necessitates comprehensive and integrated approaches where education, mental health, and climate adaptation policies converge to respond to the psychological scars left by environmental disasters.

In summary, the pervasive impacts of climate change extend beyond environmental degradation into essential domains of education and mental health. Each disrupted classroom contributes to a shared narrative of Loss within communities and generations. Thus, societal responses must recognise complexity and emphasise resilience building and inclusive educational practices in the face of climate uncertainties.

 

5        The Indigenous Struggle

The intersection of climate change and Indigenous rights reflects an urgent narrative of survival, identity, and ecological stewardship. The chapter examines the multifaceted challenges Indigenous communities face due to climate change, the Loss of traditional lands and knowledge, and the broader implications for global ecological health. 

5.1      Listening to a Dying River

Elder Tawari of the Yanomami speaks poignantly about the degradation of their environment. The Amazon's waterways, once thriving with life, are collapsing under the pressures of illegal logging and climate change. His reference to the silence of the forest and the river emphasises not only environmental degradation but also the profound cultural Loss associated with it. The connection between the physical health of the earth and the spiritual and cultural health of Indigenous communities is evident; as Tawari notes, "When the forest is sick, so are we" (Benvenuto, 2015). The narratives of Indigenous peoples serve as critical indicators of ecological health, emphasising the need for their voices in environmental conservation discussions.

Empirical studies indicate that traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) is essential in understanding and mitigating the impacts of climate change (Schramm et al., 2020). Indigenous practices often demonstrate sustainable land management techniques developed over centuries, yet these are frequently disregarded in favour of industrial approaches that can exacerbate ecological crises (Brehm, 2015). Understanding these dynamics underscores the vital role that Indigenous communities play in preserving biodiversity and supporting healthy ecosystems.

The United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP) plays a pivotal role in framing the rights and recognition of Indigenous knowledge systems. Article 31 of UNDRIP emphasises the right of Indigenous peoples to maintain, control, protect, and develop their traditional knowledge and cultural heritage (Robinson et al., 2021; White et al., 2024). This recognition is critical, especially as Indigenous knowledge systems offer valuable insights into sustainable practices, particularly in the context of climate change (Rashidi, 2024).

Moreover, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Working Group II has increasingly acknowledged the essential contributions of Indigenous knowledge to climate adaptation and resilience strategies (Carmona et al., 2023). This collaboration between traditional knowledge and scientific approaches can enhance policy formulation and implementation, ensuring that Indigenous perspectives are integrated into national climate governance frameworks (Carmona et al., 2023). Failure to recognise this knowledge not only undermines Indigenous rights but also hampers effective climate action, as Indigenous communities possess unique insights into local ecosystems and sustainable resource management. the intersection of UNDRIP and the IPCC's recognition of Indigenous knowledge highlights a crucial pathway for enhancing global responses to climate change while respecting the rights of Indigenous peoples.

5.2      Triple Vulnerability: Land, Rights, and Recognition

Indigenous peoples experience a triple vulnerability, as they are heavily reliant on fragile ecosystems that are now under siege from climate change. They often face conflicts over land rights, which are frequently unrecognised by national and international governance frameworks (Fenelon & Trafzer, 2013). lack of recognition can lead to dispossession and the cultural genocide of Indigenous communities, as their ties to land are crucial for their identity and survival. Aggravated by the effects of climate change,  cultural erosion presents a dire situation that goes beyond environmental preservation—it is a fight for existence and acknowledgement of their historical and cultural significance (Laukaitis et al., 2019).

The implications of vulnerability are far-reaching. The Loss of land translates into a loss of traditional medicines, food sources, and cultural practices—elements that are essential to their identities. As ecosystems degrade, cultural histories and lifeways become endangered, leading to the erasure of unique cultural identities (Kang et al., 2016). When forests burn and waters recede, it is not merely nature that suffers, but the very foundation of these communities' existence and heritage that is threatened. 

5.3      Guardians of Biodiversity, Pillars of Resilience

Despite comprising less than 5% of the global population, Indigenous communities are custodians of more than 80% of the remaining biodiversity. Statistics are supported by studies from the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) and FILAC, which underscore that Indigenous territories are vital for ecological stability and resilience against climate change (Schramm et al., 2020). Their deep-rooted connections to the land foster cultural diversity, which is critical in combating biodiversity loss.

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has highlighted that Indigenous knowledge and practices are essential for effective climate mitigation strategies (Hankins, 2024). However, these contributions remain undervalued and underfunded. Indigenous communities often receive less than 1% of global climate financing, which stifles their capacity to implement sustainable practices and further confines them in cycles of poverty and disempowerment (Allan, 2024). The marginalisation of Indigenous voices not only exacerbates social inequalities but also undermines global efforts to combat climate change. 

5.4      Resistance and Risk: The Cost of Protecting Earth

Indigenous resistance to environmental degradation often comes with significant risks. In 2022, more than 170 defenders of land and the environment were killed, underscoring the perilous conditions faced by those who stand against exploitative practices (Mudde, 2018). These individuals are often criminalised for asserting their rights to land and resources, a struggle that is heightened in the face of expanding extractive industries that disregard Indigenous governance systems.

The tension between modern economic imperatives and traditional wisdom manifests in violent confrontations, making the Indigenous struggle for land and rights a critical human rights issue rooted deeply in ecological integrity (Ndagijimana, 2021). As contemporary pressures mount, the existence of Indigenous cultures and their unique contributions to biodiversity management and climate resilience are increasingly threatened. The resilience shown by these communities in the face of such risks is commendable, yet it raises significant ethical questions about the societal responsibilities toward the preservation of such knowledge systems and ecological practices.

5.5      Their Struggle Is Our Survival

Indigenous resistance transcends mere survival; it represents a vital aspect of contemporary climate leadership. The stories and chants of the Yanomami and other Indigenous groups echo with the wisdom needed to address today's climate challenges. Leadership is not merely nostalgic; it is a call for an ethical reevaluation of our relationship with nature (Hofmann, 2014). To honour Indigenous rights and knowledge is to embrace an inclusive approach to climate action that recognises stewardship, reciprocity, and community well-being as foundational.

The framework of collaboration must shift from seeing Indigenous peoples as mere stakeholders to recognising them as leaders and essential partners in climate governance. Their intricate understanding of ecological systems and adaptive management strategies is invaluable for devising sustainable solutions that align with ecological and cultural integrity. If society fails to listen and incorporate Indigenous perspectives, the Loss will extend far beyond language and landscapes—it will encompass essential frameworks for healing a fractured climate and addressing the crises that ultimately affect all humanity (Jones, 2011).

In conclusion, from declining ecosystems to marginalised voices, the struggles of Indigenous communities reflect systemic issues that require global attention. Recognising interconnectedness is crucial for fostering a collaborative future where ecological wisdom and cultural heritage are celebrated and preserved. Failure to do so is not merely a loss for Indigenous peoples, but a profound loss for the global community as well. 

5.6       From Wisdom to Law: Recognising Ecocide

Movements such as Stop Ecocide advocate for the establishment of international recognition of environmental destruction as a crime equivalent to genocide and war crimes, often led by Indigenous defenders (Negri, 2022). This initiative seeks to ensure that acts causing significant harm to the environment are prosecuted under international law, resonating with calls from Indigenous communities who have historically been stewards of the land and are often the first affected by environmental degradation (Oderiy et al., 2024). 

The initiative is rooted in the belief that the intentional infliction of ecological harm should be criminalised similarly to crimes against humanity, given the widespread impacts of such actions on both people and the planet (Killean, 2020). While the concept of ecocide has gained traction, significant challenges remain in its legal incorporation into existing frameworks, such as the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (ICC), which currently emphasises human rights violations without explicit mention of ecological harm (Pereira, 2020). Supporters argue that recognising ecocide is crucial not only for environmental justice but also for addressing the systemic inequities faced by Indigenous groups as they combat the devastating impacts of climate change and habitat destruction (Killean & Newton, 2024). 

Therefore, if ecocide is recognised as an international crime, it could lead to heightened accountability for environmental destruction, offering legal channels to prosecute corporations and entities responsible for ecological harm, and ultimately contribute to the protection of vulnerable communities and ecosystems (Lelliott, 2020).

6        CONCLUSION — Call to Action 

Take action not as a spectator, but as a participant in shaping a just and livable future. Support local climate resilience hubs that protect communities before disaster strikes. Demand legal recognition for climate migrants whose lives are uprooted by forces beyond their control. Centre Indigenous knowledge in climate policies, acknowledging centuries of wisdom in harmony with nature. Advocate for youth mental health resources in disaster zones, where trauma often hides behind silence. The climate crisis is no longer a question of science—it is a question of solidarity. Will we choose to protect the vulnerable, or continue to fail them in plain sight?

The escalating climate crisis demands robust actions based on solidarity and intergenerational responsibility. Supporting local climate resilience hubs is essential, as these centres play a crucial role in empowering communities to adapt to and thrive amidst environmental changes. While specific references supporting this claim were not identified, numerous studies highlight the significance of community-based approaches to enhance resilience in the face of climate change.

Furthermore, it is vital to advocate for the legal recognition of climate migrants, who currently lack protection under international law, exposing them to increased vulnerability during climate-induced displacement. Research indicates that climate-driven migration is emerging as a critical humanitarian issue, necessitating policy changes to protect affected populations. However, the references Isobel et al. (2019) and Mete & Ghosh (2022) do not support this claim as they focus on trauma rather than legal recognition and protection mechanisms for climate migrants.

Integrating Indigenous knowledge into climate policy is another key strategy that can enrich adaptive capacities, as Indigenous peoples often possess invaluable insights into sustainable land management and environmental stewardship based on generations of living in harmony with nature. This statement is widely supported in the literature, although no specific reference has been cited here.

Lastly, expanding mental health resources for youth in disaster zones is critical, as they are particularly affected by climate-linked traumas such as eco-grief, which can have lasting psychological impacts. References Schafte & Bruna (2023) and Cromer et al. (2017) do touch on trauma and its intergenerational effects, but are not explicitly focused on climate-linked traumas in youth. Therefore, while the mental health implications are relevant, the citations do not directly support the specific claim about eco-grief in this context.

Together, these actions emphasise the intersectionality of climate justice and mental health but require a nuanced understanding supported by specific literature, which has not been appropriately cited or may need additional references to substantiate the claims made entirely. 

 

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