Sanitation in Slums: Meeting the Needs of Informal Communities for Health and Dignity

 

Author  : AM Tris Hardyanto

"In the heart of the world's slums, where narrow alleys echo with life, millions struggle with an unseen crisis—sanitation. Contaminated water, open defecation, and overcrowded latrines are not just inconveniences but life-threatening realities. Children fall ill, women risk their safety, and entire communities remain trapped in cycles of disease. However, change is possible. The question is: how do we turn these struggles into solutions for dignity, health, and survival?"

1.    The Urgency of Sanitation in Informal Settlements

Access to adequate sanitation remains a critical challenge in informal settlements, where millions of people lack basic infrastructure. Poor sanitation leads to severe health risks, environmental degradation, and socio-economic instability. The United Nations recognizes sanitation as a fundamental human right and an essential component of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), aiming to ensure universal access to safe sanitation by 2030 (Moniz et al., 2021). However, without urgent interventions, these goals remain out of reach, exacerbating global health inequalities and perpetuating cycles of poverty and disease.

Poor sanitation directly contributes to the spread of waterborne diseases such as cholera, typhoid, and diarrhoea, which disproportionately affect children under five (Hutton & Chase, 2016; Prüss-Üstün et al., 2019). Globally, inadequate sanitation causes approximately 842,000 deaths annually, highlighting the urgent need for practical solutions (Prüss-Üstün et al., 2014). Beyond physical health, unsanitary conditions significantly impact mental well-being, particularly among women and girls who face safety risks and psychological distress due to inadequate facilities (Caruso et al., 2017; Kimutai et al., 2023).

Community-driven sanitation solutions offer a viable path forward. Approaches such as the Participatory Hygiene and Sanitation Transformation (PHAST) model empower residents to co-create sustainable sanitation practices, fostering ownership and long-term success (Hetherington et al., 2017). Integrating technology to monitor sanitation conditions and engage communities further strengthens these interventions, ensuring solutions align with the needs of informal settlements (Gambrill et al., 2020; Mwesongo et al., 2023).

Addressing the sanitation crisis requires a holistic approach that combines infrastructure development, community engagement, and innovative service delivery. Aligning these efforts with global health initiatives can drive sustainable change, improving public health, social equity, and environmental resilience in the world's most vulnerable communities.

 

2.    The Current State of Sanitation in Slums

Millions of people living in slums lack access to adequate sanitation, leading to severe health risks and environmental hazards. Open defecation, water contamination, overcrowding, and poor waste disposal remain persistent challenges. Understanding these key issues is essential for designing effective and sustainable sanitation solutions.

Open Defecation and Disease Spread Inadequate sanitation forces many slum residents to practice open defecation, significantly increasing the risk of waterborne diseases such as diarrhoea and cholera (Reza et al., 2019; Musoke et al., 2018; Ssemugabo et al., 2020). Studies show that open defecation leads to faecal contamination of water sources, exacerbating public health crises. For example, in Sylhet, Bangladesh, researchers found that residents often prioritized immediate survival over hygienic latrine construction, heightening health risks for children (Reza et al., 2019).

Overcrowding and Infrastructure Deficiencies Overcrowding and poor infrastructure make it difficult to maintain hygiene in slums. The lack of sufficient toilet facilities forces multiple families to share limited resources, increasing the likelihood of disease transmission. In Nairobi's urban slums, inadequate garbage disposal and blocked drainage systems contribute to stagnant water, which serves as a breeding ground for pathogens (Safdar et al., 2022; Hussein et al., 2023). Such conditions accelerate the spread of infectious diseases and worsen overall living conditions (Siddik et al., 2024).

Water Contamination and Waste Management Slums often suffer from severe water contamination due to improper waste disposal and ineffective drainage systems. Residents rely on unprotected water sources, increasing their exposure to bacteria, viruses, and parasites (Ssemugabo et al., 2020). Poorly managed waste disposal leads to clogged drains, flooding, and further pollution of vital water supplies (Safdar et al., 2022). These systemic issues demand urgent interventions to improve sanitation infrastructure and implement sustainable waste management solutions.

Pathways to Improved Sanitation Addressing sanitation challenges in slums requires targeted interventions, including infrastructure improvements, community-led initiatives, and educational programs on hygiene practices (Ferdous et al., 2022; Lee & Radcliff, 2020). Policymakers must assess sanitation needs comprehensively and integrate community input into sustainable solutions (Haque et al., 2020; Yirdaw et al., 2023). Studies confirm that active community participation fosters ownership and ensures the longevity of sanitation programs (Evangelista et al., 2021).

Conclusion Understanding the current state of sanitation in slums highlights the urgent need for integrated solutions that address open defecation, water contamination, overcrowding, and waste management. Implementing targeted interventions that engage communities and align with global sanitation standards will improve health outcomes and create sustainable urban environments.

 

3.     Innovative Sanitation Solutions: Affordability and Scalability

Innovative sanitation solutions must be both affordable and scalable to address sanitation challenges in slums effectively. Technologies such as composting toilets, decentralized wastewater treatment systems, and portable handwashing stations provide viable alternatives to traditional sanitation methods. These cost-effective solutions can be expanded to serve large populations, improving hygiene and reducing public health risks in informal settlements.

Composting Toilets: Sustainable and Cost-Effective Composting toilets offer a sustainable solution by transforming human waste into compost, reducing environmental contamination while promoting resource recovery. Research demonstrates that well-managed composting toilets can mitigate health risks by safely processing faecal matter without relying on extensive water infrastructure (Hylton et al., 2020). Their low implementation cost makes them an accessible option for slum dwellers where traditional sewage infrastructure remains inadequate (McNicol et al., 2020). Additionally, decentralized approaches, such as composting toilets, enhance privacy, reduce pathogen exposure, and create economic opportunities through compost use in urban agriculture (Ersson & King, 2019).

Decentralized Wastewater Treatment: Enhancing Sanitation Resilience Decentralized wastewater treatment systems provide a localized approach to managing sanitation in slums. Technologies such as biogas toilets and urine-diverting dry toilets (UDDT) address sanitation needs while generating biogas for energy and producing nutrient-rich fertilizer (Semiyaga et al., 2015; Tobias et al., 2017). Compared to centralized sewage systems, these cost-effective alternatives can be adapted to diverse urban environments and scaled up to serve thousands of users (Tandel et al., 2021). By reducing open defecation and improving sanitation infrastructure, these systems significantly enhance community health outcomes.

Portable Handwashing Stations: Strengthening Hygiene Practices Ensuring access to clean water and handwashing facilities is essential in preventing hygiene-related illnesses in slum communities. Portable handwashing stations provide a simple yet impactful solution, particularly in densely populated areas where sanitation resources are limited (Saxton et al., 2017; Williams et al., 2018). Their modular design allows for easy installation in high-risk zones, and their low maintenance costs facilitate integration into existing sanitation frameworks (Saxton et al., 2017). Studies confirm that improving access to handwashing stations significantly reduces the transmission of diseases such as diarrhoea and respiratory infections (Patel et al., 2019; Amala, 2023).

Conclusion Affordable and scalable sanitation solutions, including composting toilets, decentralized wastewater treatment systems, and portable handwashing stations, play a crucial role in improving sanitation conditions in urban slums. These technologies not only enhance public health by reducing exposure to waste-related contaminants but also promote sustainability through resource recovery. Effective implementation requires collaboration among stakeholders and active community participation to ensure sanitation interventions align with the needs of slum populations. By prioritizing these innovations, policymakers and practitioners can drive meaningful progress toward achieving global sanitation goals.

 

4.    Community Engagement: A Key to Success

Community engagement plays a crucial role in the success of sanitation projects in informal settlements. Actively involving residents in planning and implementation ensures that sanitation solutions align with cultural norms, address local needs, and foster long-term sustainability. When communities take ownership of sanitation initiatives, they become more invested in maintaining and improving these systems, reducing reliance on external interventions (McConville et al., 2014; Praja et al., 2024).

Building Trust and Overcoming Barriers Effective community engagement requires building trust among residents, local leaders, and stakeholders. Many informal settlements have experienced failed sanitation interventions due to a lack of transparency, community involvement, or understanding of local behaviours (Soudachanh et al., 2022). Addressing these challenges demands a participatory approach that fosters mutual respect and clear communication. Behaviour change theories, such as the Health Belief Model, emphasize that individuals are more likely to adopt improved sanitation practices when they perceive tangible benefits, understand risks, and feel socially supported (Mukasa et al., 2023).

Culturally Appropriate Solutions and Behavior Change Ensuring that sanitation solutions reflect cultural norms and social behaviours increases adoption rates and long-term effectiveness. Research shows that interventions designed with community input have higher success rates because they integrate familiar practices and address privacy, dignity, and safety concerns (Rajbhandary, 2019). In Burkina Faso, participatory planning helped construct sanitation facilities that matched cultural expectations, leading to higher usage rates (McConville et al., 2014). Similarly, in Uganda, incorporating community feedback into sanitation projects significantly improved service sustainability (Mukasa et al., 2023).

Examples of Successful Community-Led Sanitation Initiatives Several successful initiatives highlight the power of community involvement in sanitation improvements. In India, the Swachh Bharat Mission (Clean India Campaign) engaged local communities in eliminating open defecation, demonstrating that behaviour-driven approaches can transform sanitation practices nationwide (Sharma et al., 2021). In Bangladesh, the Community-Led Total Sanitation (CLTS) approach empowered residents to take collective action, leading to widespread improvements in hygiene practices and latrine usage (Haque et al., 2020).

Conclusion Community engagement remains essential for creating sustainable and effective sanitation solutions in informal settlements. By incorporating cultural considerations, fostering trust, and leveraging behaviour change theories, sanitation initiatives can achieve long-term success. Active community participation ensures that sanitation systems remain relevant, functional, and well-maintained, ultimately improving public health and enhancing the quality of life in underserved areas.

 

5.    Case Study: Successful Sanitation Projects in Slums

Successful sanitation projects in slums provide valuable lessons on what strategies work best in improving public health and hygiene. Two standout examples demonstrate how innovation, community engagement, and sustainability principles can lead to transformative change: the implementation of mycoremediation toilets in Bangladesh and the establishment of solar-powered water hubs in Jordan. These initiatives succeeded, whereas others struggled due to their decentralized approach, cost-effectiveness, and strong community involvement.

Mycoremediation Toilets: A Decentralized Sanitation Breakthrough In Bangladesh, mycoremediation toilets have significantly reduced cholera cases by employing fungal processes to break down waste efficiently. Unlike traditional sanitation methods, which often fail to contain and treat human waste in densely populated slums, mycoremediation technology accelerates decomposition while neutralizing harmful pathogens (Wolf et al., 2014). Studies confirm that these toilets offer a low-cost, environmentally sustainable alternative that improves public health outcomes (Vermeulen et al., 2015; Hyde‐Smith et al., 2022). The success of this intervention stems from its decentralized design, which allows rapid deployment in high-risk areas without extensive infrastructure investments. Community engagement further strengthened adoption, as residents played an active role in maintaining and optimizing these sanitation facilities.

Solar-Powered Water Hubs: Enhancing Hygiene and Education In Jordan, solar-powered water hubs have improved hygiene and school attendance among girls by ensuring reliable access to clean water. Many low-income families rely on inconsistent water supplies, forcing children—especially girls—to miss school due to inadequate sanitation facilities. These hubs harness renewable energy to provide sustainable water access, reducing the burden on women and children who would otherwise spend hours fetching water (Donacho et al., 2022). Research highlights that improved school sanitation facilities, particularly for menstrual hygiene management, significantly reduce absenteeism among adolescent girls (Simiyu et al., 2021). This project's success lies in its integration of renewable energy, gender-sensitive planning, and collaboration with local communities, which ensured long-term sustainability and widespread adoption.

Lessons for Future Sanitation Interventions These case studies highlight the importance of designing sanitation solutions that align with local needs while integrating environmental and social considerations. Mycoremediation toilets in Bangladesh demonstrate how decentralized and cost-effective technologies can tackle health crises in slums. Similarly, Jordan's solar-powered water hubs showcase how energy-efficient solutions can address gender disparities in education by improving hygiene infrastructure. Both interventions emphasize the role of community engagement in ensuring the success and sustainability of sanitation projects.

Conclusion Innovative and community-driven sanitation solutions can effectively address the unique challenges of slum environments. The success of mycoremediation toilets and solar-powered water hubs underscores the importance of decentralized approaches, environmental sustainability, and gender-sensitive planning. Future sanitation initiatives should build on these lessons, leveraging technology, policy support, and local participation to create lasting improvements in hygiene, public health, and overall quality of life.

 

6.    Challenges and Barriers to Implementation

Despite the promise of innovative sanitation solutions, several challenges hinder their implementation in informal settlements. These include funding constraints, lack of technical expertise, and resistance to change. Addressing these barriers requires a multi-stakeholder approach that integrates government support, private-sector investment, and community participation.

Funding Constraints: The Need for Scalable Financial Models Limited financial resources remain a significant obstacle to sanitation infrastructure development in low-income areas. Insufficient budgets often lead to incomplete projects or poorly maintained facilities, reducing their long-term impact (Shehu & Nazim, 2022; El-Haloush et al., 2019). Public-private partnerships have helped optimize resource allocation while ensuring accountability (Wallock et al., 2024). However, additional funding mechanisms, such as microfinancing and community-led investment models, can provide alternative pathways for sustainable financing (Narayan et al., 2021; Minh & Hung, 2011). These approaches enable residents to contribute to sanitation projects in small increments, fostering ownership and long-term sustainability.

Technical Expertise: Bridging the Skills Gap Many low-income regions lack trained professionals to install, operate, and maintain sanitation systems effectively. In Ghana, for example, a disproportionate allocation of technical resources to water services has led to lower sanitation coverage (Oduro-Kwarteng et al., 2014). Addressing this gap requires targeted training programs that empower local NGOs, community workers, and municipal authorities to manage sanitation infrastructure (Davis et al., 2019; Heller et al., 2014). Investing in skill-building initiatives strengthens local capacity, ensuring the successful implementation and sustainability of sanitation solutions.

Resistance to Change: Overcoming Cultural and Behavioral Barriers Cultural norms, distrust of new technologies, and past failures contribute to community resistance against sanitation interventions (Chumo et al., 2023; Banamwana et al., 2022). Engaging residents early in the design and decision-making process helps build trust and ensures that solutions align with local values (Gilbert et al., 2014; Pillai & Narayanan, 2021). Behavioural change strategies, such as participatory education and community-led sanitation models, have proven effective in increasing adoption rates and fostering long-term commitment to improved sanitation (Andersson & Minoia, 2016).

Government and Private Sector Collaboration: Strengthening Multi-Sectoral Approaches Governments, NGOs, and the private sector must work together to scale up sanitation solutions. Successful models, such as Kenya's Water Services Trust Fund and India's Swachh Bharat Mission, demonstrate how partnerships can drive sanitation accessibility in informal settlements (Collins & Weinel, 2011; Minh & Hung, 2011). By aligning policies, sharing best practices, and mobilizing resources, stakeholders can create integrated sanitation solutions that are economically viable, environmentally sustainable, and socially acceptable.

Conclusion Overcoming sanitation challenges in informal settlements requires addressing financial limitations, enhancing technical expertise, and fostering community acceptance. Implementing innovative funding models, capacity-building programs, and culturally sensitive approaches can create sustainable sanitation solutions. By leveraging strategic partnerships and engaging communities, stakeholders can ensure lasting improvements in public health and urban sanitation.

 

7.    The Role of Policy and Governance

Effective policy and governance play a crucial role in implementing sanitation solutions in slums. Governments must prioritize sanitation in their development agendas, address legal and administrative barriers, and create policies that promote innovation, public-private partnerships, and community involvement. Without strong governance, sanitation interventions often fail due to weak enforcement, lack of coordination, and insufficient investment.

Strengthening Policy Frameworks for Sustainable Sanitation Governments must establish clear policy frameworks that integrate sanitation into broader urban development and public health strategies. In Ethiopia, initiatives such as the National Hygiene and Sanitation Strategy and Community-Led Total Sanitation (CLTS) have significantly reduced open defecation by promoting community engagement and government accountability (Tasic et al., 2020). However, many sanitation policies fail in slums due to bureaucratic inefficiencies, land tenure issues, and poor enforcement of regulations (Mukasa et al., 2023). Strengthening institutional capacity and ensuring political commitment can enhance policy effectiveness.

Overcoming Legal and Administrative Barriers Legal and administrative obstacles often prevent effective sanitation governance in informal settlements. Many slums exist outside formal legal frameworks, making it challenging to extend government services or enforce sanitation regulations. Flexible policy mechanisms, such as informal settlement upgrading programs and tenure regularization, can help integrate slums into urban sanitation planning (Snyder et al., 2020). Additionally, decentralizing decision-making and empowering local governments can improve responsiveness and accountability in sanitation service delivery.

The Role of Public-Private Partnerships and Global Organizations Public-private partnerships (PPPs) have proven successful in expanding sanitation services. In Kenya, partnerships between the government and private enterprises have enhanced sanitation infrastructure in urban slums by leveraging private sector expertise and financing (McGranahan, 2015). International organizations, such as the World Bank and the World Health Organization (WHO), also play a vital role by providing technical support, funding, and global policy guidance for sanitation interventions (Musuva et al., 2019). Aligning local policies with global sanitation targets can drive progress toward achieving Sustainable Development Goal 6 on clean water and sanitation.

Ensuring Community Participation in Sanitation Governance Top-down sanitation policies often fail when they do not consider local realities. Policies that promote community involvement ensure that sanitation solutions align with cultural norms and daily practices, increasing acceptance and sustainability (Frinaldi et al., 2024). The CLTS model demonstrates how grassroots engagement can foster long-term behavioural changes and enhance sanitation coverage (Harter et al., 2018). Social networks and community-led initiatives also play a critical role in maintaining sanitation facilities and promoting hygiene education (Musuva et al., 2019).

Conclusion Effective policy and governance are essential for sustainable sanitation in slums. Governments must strengthen policy frameworks, address legal barriers, and foster collaboration with the private sector and international organizations. Additionally, integrating community participation into sanitation governance ensures that interventions are culturally relevant and sustainable. By aligning policies with local needs and global best practices, policymakers can create lasting improvements in sanitation infrastructure, public health, and quality of life in informal settlements.

 

8.    Environmental and Health Benefits

Improving sanitation in slums delivers significant environmental and health benefits, strengthening public health systems and promoting sustainable urban development. Proper waste management reduces pollution and safeguards groundwater, while improved hygiene practices prevent disease transmission. Investments in sanitation not only mitigate immediate health risks but also enhance economic productivity by reducing healthcare costs and increasing workforce resilience.

Reducing Pollution and Protecting Water Sources Effective waste management plays a crucial role in minimizing pollution and preventing groundwater contamination. Open defecation and improper waste disposal introduce harmful pathogens into local water bodies, increasing the risk of waterborne diseases such as cholera and diarrhoea (Minh & Hung, 2011; Winter et al., 2017). Research indicates that improved sanitation infrastructure reduces faecal contamination in water supplies by 40% to 60%, significantly lowering public health risks (Sy et al., 2017). In Bangladesh, initiatives promoting latrine construction and proper waste disposal have resulted in a 50% decline in cases of diarrheal diseases (Ahmed et al., 2023). By integrating sanitation solutions with water conservation efforts, communities can protect their drinking water and reduce pollution-related illnesses.

Preventing Disease Transmission Through Hygiene Improvements Enhanced sanitation and hygiene practices serve as practical barriers against disease transmission. Access to clean water and improved latrines reduces exposure to pathogens, cutting the incidence of diarrhoea by up to 36% in affected areas (Cairncross, 2018). Hygiene education further strengthens these benefits, ensuring communities adopt and maintain safe sanitation behaviours (Shang et al., 2022; Afework et al., 2022). In Ethiopia, hygiene promotion programs combined with sanitation infrastructure improvements led to a 27% reduction in childhood mortality linked to preventable infections (Freeman et al., 2016). These findings underscore the importance of coupling infrastructure investments with behaviour change strategies to maximize public health outcomes.

Long-Term Benefits: Building Resilient Communities Sustained investments in sanitation contribute to stronger, more resilient communities. Improved sanitation infrastructure enhances school attendance, particularly for girls who often miss classes due to inadequate facilities (Li et al., 2015). Studies show that sanitation interventions in schools reduce absenteeism among female students by up to 20%, enabling them to pursue education and economic opportunities (Amoak et al., 2023). Additionally, reducing sanitation-related diseases lowers medical expenses and improves household economic stability, driving broader social and economic development (Freeman et al., 2016).

Conclusion Investing in sanitation infrastructure yields lasting environmental and health benefits. By reducing pollution, preventing disease transmission, and fostering resilient communities, sanitation improvements play a critical role in public health and economic stability. Strategic, community-centred sanitation interventions can transform slum environments, leading to healthier populations and sustainable urban growth.

 

9.    Future Directions: Scaling Up and Sustaining Impact

Ensuring the long-term success of sanitation projects in slums requires a strategic focus on scalability, sustainability, and adaptability. Future initiatives must integrate short-term solutions, such as leveraging existing technologies for monitoring, with long-term strategies, including capacity building, infrastructure maintenance, and emerging innovations like AI-driven sanitation planning. Addressing these aspects will create resilient, community-driven sanitation systems capable of adapting to evolving urban and environmental challenges.

Scalability and Long-Term Sustainability Sanitation projects must transition from short-term relief measures to sustainable, scalable interventions. Successful programs in Africa and Asia demonstrate that well-structured sanitation investments yield significant health benefits and economic returns, with studies indicating that every $1 spent on sanitation results in up to $4.30 in economic savings due to reduced healthcare costs and increased productivity (Salman et al., 2024; Parikh et al., 2021). Governments and stakeholders must prioritize infrastructure designs that can accommodate growing populations while remaining flexible to urban development trends.

Investing in Maintenance and Capacity Building Many sanitation projects fail due to inadequate maintenance. Sustainable sanitation systems require long-term investments in community training and maintenance programs to prevent infrastructure deterioration (Huang, 2024). Empowering local communities with technical knowledge ensures the continued functionality of sanitation facilities (Minh & Hung, 2011). Additionally, introducing digital monitoring tools can streamline maintenance efforts, allowing rapid detection and resolution of sanitation issues (Simiyu et al., 2017).

Leveraging Technology and Innovation Advancements in digital technology can revolutionize sanitation management. Mobile applications for tracking facility usage, AI-driven sanitation planning, and smart sanitation tracking systems enhance efficiency and real-time decision-making (Öberg et al., 2020). Biogas toilets, composting systems, and self-cleaning latrines also contribute to environmentally sustainable sanitation practices, reducing waste and converting it into valuable resources (Loukil, 2016; Schmachtenberger et al., 2022).

Community-Driven and Climate-Resilient Sanitation Systems Future sanitation solutions must be community-centric, ensuring cultural relevance and local ownership. Studies show that involving residents in sanitation planning increases adoption rates and long-term success (Tseole et al., 2022; Elias et al., 2021). Additionally, climate change poses new challenges for sanitation infrastructure, including rising water levels and extreme weather events. Governments and NGOs must incorporate climate-resilient designs, such as flood-proof toilets and water-efficient systems, to ensure the sustainability of sanitation services in vulnerable regions (Wanaswa et al., 2021).

Conclusion The future of sanitation in slums depends on the integration of scalable solutions, community-driven initiatives, and technological advancements. By prioritizing infrastructure maintenance, investing in local capacity building, and embracing innovative technologies, sanitation projects can foster healthier, more resilient communities. Addressing climate-related risks and ensuring long-term sustainability will be crucial in meeting the growing sanitation needs of urban populations.

 

10. Conclusion: A Call to Action

Addressing sanitation challenges in informal settlements demands urgent and coordinated action. Millions of individuals live without adequate sanitation, exposing them to preventable health risks, environmental hazards, and a lower quality of life. Ensuring access to proper sanitation is not just a public health necessity—it is a fundamental human right. Governments, policymakers, NGOs, and private sector actors must prioritize sanitation investments to meet Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6 on clean water and sanitation. To achieve this, national governments must increase sanitation funding by at least 30% to close infrastructure gaps and expand community-led sanitation programs (Botting et al., 2010; Wolf et al., 2019).

Implementing decentralized sanitation systems, leveraging innovative sanitation technologies, and strengthening public-private partnerships can significantly improve service delivery and long-term sustainability (Galan et al., 2013; Kothari et al., 2019). However, these solutions will only succeed with strong community engagement. When residents participate in designing, implementing, and maintaining sanitation facilities, they take ownership, ensuring long-term success (Owho & Ndakara, 2022).

Governments must integrate sanitation policies into broader urban planning initiatives, eliminate bureaucratic hurdles, and streamline resource allocation. Additionally, international organizations such as the WHO and the World Bank must continue providing technical expertise and financial support to low-income regions facing severe sanitation deficits (Saleem et al., 2019; Fuller et al., 2014).

The call to action is clear: investing in sanitation is not just about infrastructure—it is about dignity, equity, and long-term public health. By prioritizing sustainable solutions and fostering collaboration across sectors, stakeholders can transform slum sanitation systems, uplift communities, and improve millions of lives worldwide.

 

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