Water at the Brink: How Clear Goals and Honest Dialogue Can Transform Global Sanitation : Every drop counts—but without precision, transparency, and community voice, progress evaporates before impact.

 

Author: AM Tris Hardyanto

Every drop counts—but what if the real reason billions still lack clean water and safe toilets are not about technology or funding but about the questions we are not asking? Across the globe, despite billions in infrastructure spending, access to safe water and sanitation remains out of reach for nearly half the population. What if our most significant barrier is not scarcity, but the failure to set focused goals, empower communities, and let data guide us? The article explores a new blueprint—rooted in dialogue, precision, and grassroots innovation—that is already reshaping systems in Bangladesh, Jakarta, and beyond. It is time to move from crisis to collaboration.

1. Introduction

1.1 Understanding the Global Water and Sanitation Crisis

The global water and sanitation crisis remains a critical challenge to public health and sustainable development, driven by increasing water scarcity and insufficient sanitation systems. These issues are deeply embedded in socio-economic and environmental structures, leading to adverse impacts on health outcomes, economic resilience, and ecological sustainability (Mangai & Vries, 2018; Nurcahyono et al., 2019). Recent statistics reveal that approximately 2 billion individuals lack access to safe drinking water, and over 4 billion are without safely managed sanitation services (Ezeh et al., 2014).

Inadequate water quality and sanitation facilities contribute to a higher burden of disease, particularly from diarrheal illnesses and waterborne pathogens, thereby intensifying mortality and morbidity rates globally (Ma et al., 2020; Bisung & Elliott, 2017). These health outcomes illustrate the interconnectivity between infrastructure gaps and broader human development indicators, emphasizing the need for integrated solutions that go beyond construction and technological upgrades.

To address these complex challenges effectively, a strategic framework anchored in specific, evidence-based objectives is necessary. Rather than relying on generalized goals such as "improving sanitation," targeted interventions must articulate actionable aims, such as providing clean toilets in rural communities or ensuring continuous access to potable water in informal urban settlements (Rahman et al., 2018; Kusumawaty, 2021). Its precision fosters alignment across stakeholders, encourages accountability, and enhances the measurability of outcomes (Sahoo et al., 2015; Goss et al., 2019).

Furthermore, the development of resilient water and sanitation systems necessitates context-sensitive approaches that integrate local knowledge, environmental considerations, and social innovations. Localized strategies have proven effective in mobilizing communities, promoting behavioural change, and ensuring long-term program sustainability ("The Role of Villagers' Social Innovations in Advocacy Village Tourism Through Involvement of Study Activities in Village Tourism," 2022). These approaches underscore the importance of designing solutions that respond to specific demographic and geographic conditions, ensuring that interventions are both inclusive and adaptable.

In addition to clearly defined goals and localized action, effective communication plays a pivotal role in fostering public engagement and awareness. Simplifying technical language and enhancing advocacy efforts enable communities and policymakers to understand the urgency of the issue and collaborate on sustainable solutions (Gürsu, 2024). Its narrative approach supports a shared vision for water justice, bridging gaps between research, policy, and practice.

The discussion that follows will explore key pillars for improving water and sanitation access, focusing on empirical evidence, data-driven strategies, and inclusive frameworks. These components form the basis for a comprehensive and actionable pathway to overcome one of the most pressing global development challenges of the 21st century.

The global water and sanitation crisis has deep historical roots, dating back to the industrial era, when rapid urbanization outpaced infrastructure development and population growth. Environmental degradation later intensified the situation, as did inequitable policy responses. While significant efforts like the UN's International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade (1981–1990) and Sustainable Development Goal 6 have attempted to address these challenges, progress remains uneven and fragile.

 The discussion that follows will build on Its historical context by unpacking critical pillars for transformative action. It begins by emphasizing the importance of setting clear and specific objectives, followed by an exploration of localized methodologies tailored to community realities. Subsequent chapters will highlight the role of inclusive communication, strategic goal-setting with measurable metrics, and the power of open-ended inquiry and data-driven policy. Together, these components offer a coherent, actionable framework for confronting one of the most urgent and complex global development challenges of our time.

2: Defining Clear Objectives Targeted Solutions for Water and Sanitation Challenges

2.1 The Need for Clear and Specific Goals

Water and sanitation challenges are deeply embedded in complex socio-economic and environmental systems, which vary significantly across regions and populations (Magagula, 2024; Neguez & Laky, 2023). To address these multifaceted issues effectively, stakeholders must differentiate between high-level policy objectives and actionable implementation goals, ensuring that strategies are coherent, measurable, and adaptable.

At the policy level, overarching frameworks such as Sustainable Development Goal 6 (SDG 6)—which aims to "ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all"—provide vital global direction. However, while SDG 6 sets a universal benchmark, the broad language often lacks the specificity needed for practical field-level execution (Godin et al., 2017).

At the implementation level, well-defined, localized objectives become critical anchors for responsive interventions. Posing precise questions such as, "How can every child in a rural village gain access to a clean toilet?" encourages results-oriented thinking and improves alignment between strategy and impact (Hidayana et al., 2024). Objectives like "eliminating open defecation in urban slums by 2025" or "reducing school absenteeism caused by waterborne illnesses by 30%" allow agencies to measure outcomes more accurately, driving real-time adjustments based on evidence (Patel et al., 2016; Setyari et al., 2022).

Concrete, measurable goals not only sharpen the focus of interventions but also serve as guiding instruments for resource allocation, capacity development, and inter-agency coordination (Nwobodo & Chukwu, 2020). By translating broad SDG targets into locally actionable roadmaps, stakeholders can ensure that both short-term efforts and long-term strategies are synchronized. In this way, effective goal-setting emerges as a foundational pillar of successful water and sanitation programs (Okaiyeto et al., 2020; Acampa et al., 2019; Dąbrowski et al., 2018).

As we consider the value of strategic goal-setting, it becomes evident that successful implementation also hinges on understanding and responding to the specific cultural, social, and geographic contexts in which these goals must operate. The next section focuses on the need for local contextualization.

2.2 The Role of Localized Methodologies in Enhancing Impact

Localized methodologies are indispensable in ensuring that water and sanitation interventions are sustainable, equitable, and culturally appropriate. These approaches recognize that the challenges and solutions differ widely between regions, urban and rural settings, and demographic groups. Tailoring strategies to these local realities increases community ownership, enhances cultural relevance, and significantly boosts the likelihood of long-term adoption (Kusdarini et al., 2020; Hamilton et al., 2014).

Programs that fail to adapt to local conditions misalign priorities and limit impact. For example, rural areas may face barriers such as inadequate infrastructure or cultural taboos, while urban slums might struggle with overcrowding, poor governance, and informal housing. Customizing engagement strategies, technologies, and outcome goals to fit these contexts ensures resonance with community needs and encourages more active participation (Khalid et al., 2022; Akhkha et al., 2019).

Furthermore, localized planning enables stakeholders to address structural disparities in political representation, social capital, and economic opportunity—factors that critically shape access to water and sanitation services. Programs rooted in community participation yield solutions that reflect lived experiences, strengthen local ownership and minimize resistance to change. Context-aware methods empower local institutions to adapt and scale solutions as conditions evolve (Hendricks & Pool, 2012; Ghini et al., 2016).

Community-driven monitoring and evaluation also enhance impact and accountability. When benchmarks are both technically sound and locally appropriate, they generate reliable feedback loops that refine interventions and build adaptive learning systems (Zhang et al., 2015).

Ultimately, localized strategies bridge the gap between policy aspirations like SDG 6 and real-world implementation. The alignment of clearly articulated objectives with culturally informed approaches forms the backbone of transformative action in the water and sanitation sector.

By integrating precise goal-setting with localized methodologies, stakeholders can establish a robust foundation for advancing water and sanitation equity. These dual components transform ambitious policy ideals into community-driven action. The following chapter builds on these principles and explores how strategic communication can enhance policy impact and community engagement. Simplified language and accessible advocacy tools can enhance public engagement, policy alignment, and measurable impact, ensuring that communities are not only recipients of change but co-creators of lasting solutions.

 

3. Simplifying Water and Sanitation Advocacy Making the Message Clear and Accessible

3.1 Effective Communication for Public Awareness

Advocating for improved water and sanitation requires communication strategies that are not only scientifically accurate but also culturally resonant and easy to understand. Technical terminology—such as "faecal sludge management" or "pathogen load"—often alienates community members, reducing both interest and participation in critical initiatives (Dungeni et al., 2010; Markman et al., 2010; Edwin, 2022). Using accessible language—such as "dirty water makes children sick" or "clean toilets keep families healthy"—creates immediate emotional and cognitive connections that drive behaviour change.

These strategies align with behavioural change theories such as the Health Belief Model, which emphasizes that individuals are more likely to act when they perceive a health threat as serious, feel personally at risk, and understand how a simple action can mitigate that risk. Clear messages help bridge the gap between knowledge and action, especially in areas where many people view sanitation as a low-priority or taboo subject.

The use of visual advocacy tools, including infographics, storyboards, community murals, and explainer videos, strengthens message clarity. These formats are particularly effective in areas with low literacy levels or diverse language groups (Zhang et al., 2023; Panasiewicz et al., 2019; Larsson et al., 2016). Compelling visuals not only convey essential information quickly but also evoke emotion and inspire action, both of which are vital in shifting attitudes and normalizing new behaviours.

A compelling example of these principles in action is the "Swachh Bharat Abhiyan" (Clean India Mission) campaign. Launched by the Government of India, the campaign used Bollywood celebrities, short animated videos, and street art to normalize toilet usage and promote open defecation-free communities. By combining strong messaging ("Toilets First, Temples Later"), public role modelling, and relatable storytelling, the campaign helped increase rural toilet coverage from 38% in 2014 to over 90% by 2019 (World Bank, 2020). It demonstrated the power of relatable language, repeated cues, and the influence of social norms in driving behavioural change.

Culturally adapted communication not only raises awareness but also mobilizes collective responsibility. When individuals see that their peers are engaging in safe water and sanitation practices, they are more likely to adopt similar behaviours—a principle known in Social Norms Theory. Advocacy that reflects local customs and visual identities creates trust and boosts participation, particularly in underserved urban and rural settings.

 

3.2 The Importance of Accessible Advocacy Tools

Accessible advocacy tools transform complex topics into actionable knowledge, enabling inclusive public engagement. Condensing reports or sanitation guidelines into infographics, social media posts, or 2-minute video summaries ensure wider dissemination, especially among youth, marginalized groups, and non-specialist stakeholders (Ćetković et al., 2022; Yue et al., 2023; Hui et al., 2017).

When designers incorporate local voices, they create tools that are more relevant, effective, and widely accepted by the community. With languages and cultural aesthetics in mind, they foster a sense of ownership and shared responsibility. Its participatory approach strengthens the "cue to action" component from behaviour change theory, signalling that sanitation is not just a government issue—it is a collective civic duty.

Evidence supports that straightforward, accessible tools increase motivation and long-term commitment. For example, community-produced radio programs and WhatsApp groups in parts of Sub-Saharan Africa have successfully educated residents on water-saving habits and safe hygiene during seasonal droughts. These grassroots innovations close information gaps while building trust between residents and implementing agencies (Elfithri et al., 2019).

Moreover, these tools help overcome urban-rural disparities in information access. While urban residents may receive updates via apps or billboards, rural communities often rely on community meetings, posters, or travelling theatre groups. By tailoring delivery formats to each context, stakeholders ensure equitable knowledge access, laying the groundwork for sustained sanitation improvements.

In summary, effective advocacy in the water and sanitation sector depends on clarity, cultural relevance, and the strategic application of behavioural insights. Communication that is relatable and grounded in local realities not only raises awareness but also catalyzes long-term shifts in attitudes and practices. The next chapter builds on its foundation by exploring how precise goal-setting and the use of metrics can enhance program design, ensure accountability, and drive measurable progress across diverse implementation contexts.

4. The Power of Precision: Setting Clear Targets for Effective Water and Sanitation Solutions

4.1 The Necessity of Precise Goal-Setting

Precise goal-setting is essential for transforming development aspirations into tangible, measurable outcomes. Broad objectives—such as "improve sanitation access"—may sound promising, but they often lack the specificity needed to guide meaningful action. In contrast, well-defined targets—such as reducing open defecation by 50% within three years in peri-urban settlements—enhance clarity, enable tracking, and promote accountability (Li & Ming-jun, 2023; Jin et al., 2019).

Clearly articulated goals ensure that every stakeholder aligns their contribution with the shared goals with a shared purpose. They provide the scaffolding for programmatic design, funding decisions, and implementation sequencing. The structured approach boosts the efficiency of resource allocation and increases public trust in sanitation initiatives (Zimba et al., 2024).

Significantly, goal-setting improves sanitation outcomes across both national and local levels. For example, during the Rwanda National Sanitation Policy rollout (2016–2020), clear milestones—such as achieving 100% household toilet coverage by 2020—helped local governments align community programs, leading to a significant reduction in open defecation in rural districts. Similarly, in the Philippines, the Zero Open Defecation (ZOD) Program used goal-driven community verification to track and declare ODF barangays (villages), combining community incentives with official audits to ensure progress (WHO & UNICEF, 2020). 

Broad Goal	Transformed Specific Target
Improve sanitation	Eliminate open defecation in urban slums by 2025
Clean water access	Ensure 100% household water access in Village A by 2026
Reduce disease	Decrease school absenteeism due to diarrhoea by 30% within 2 years.
Enhance hygiene habits	Achieve 90% handwashing compliance in schools by the end of 2025
Upgrade infrastructure	Build 5 new community toilets with water supply in high-density zones by 2026

Practical goals also foster intersectoral cooperation by creating common ground among governments, donors, NGOs, and community organizations. They bridge policy with practice, helping translate abstract commitments—like those in SDG 6—into real-world impact through shared accountability (Patel et al., 2016; Nwobodo & Chukwu, 2020).

4.2 Metrics as Tools for Accountability

If precise goals are the compass, metrics are the map. Metrics provide essential tools for evaluating program progress, assessing performance, and guiding mid-course corrections. They allow stakeholders to quantify the impact, identify implementation gaps, and replicate successful strategies (Zhao et al., 2020; Hou, 2022; Liu & Jian, 2023).

Two distinct approaches to metrics—top-down and bottom-up—highlight the strengths and limitations of various accountability systems:

• Top-down metrics, often used by national governments and international agencies, rely on standardized indicators (e.g., JMP's "safely managed sanitation" or SDG indicators) to report progress at the macro level. These frameworks provide comparability across countries and drive high-level policy, but they may overlook local nuances and community experiences.
• By contrast, bottom-up metrics emerge from the community or district level. These indicators—such as household-reported toilet use, local cleanliness audits, or school absenteeism due to illness—offer context-sensitive insights. While less standardized, they can be more responsive to real-time feedback and are highly effective in mobilizing local ownership.

Nepal's Total Sanitation Campaign provides an excellent illustration of bottom-up success. To verify progress, village-led indicators like "no visible faeces," "soap available near toilets," and "hygiene education sessions conducted" were used. These locally relevant metrics empowered communities to declare themselves open-defecation-free (ODF), resulting in over 90% national coverage by 2020 (Government of Nepal, 2020).

Metrics also play a critical role in adaptive management. Real-time dashboards, mobile apps for field data collection, and participatory monitoring mechanisms enable stakeholders to adjust interventions based on emerging evidence. These tools transform metrics from static reporting tools into dynamic levers for learning and improvement (Zhang et al., 2015).

Lastly, the use of transparent, public-facing metrics increases legitimacy. When organizations share progress in accessible formats, such as community scorecards, radio announcements, or open data portals, they foster greater transparency and public engagement. Stakeholders build trust and deepen accountability. These systems make it possible to track investments, measure equity impacts, and ensure no group is left behind.

In sum, precise goal-setting and context-sensitive metrics are not merely administrative tools—they are strategic imperatives for scaling sustainable sanitation solutions. The synergy between top-down frameworks for global alignment and bottom-up monitoring for community accountability creates a robust architecture for impactful reform.

The team builds on its foundation to develop more innovative and effective solutions. The next chapter will explore how challenging flawed assumptions in sanitation program design—and replacing them with insights from participatory learning—can further improve outcomes, especially in marginalized or hard-to-reach communities.

 

5. Rethinking Assumptions: Uncovering the Hidden Challenges in Water and Sanitation Programs

5.1 Addressing Flawed Assumptions in Program Design

Water and sanitation interventions often fall short due to foundational misconceptions about community behaviour and needs. The widespread assumption that toilet construction alone ensures improved sanitation oversimplifies the complexity of user behaviour, cultural norms, and community engagement (Esperschuetz et al., 2016). Its narrow focus frequently leads to underuse, misuse, and inadequate maintenance of facilities.

Programs that concentrate exclusively on infrastructure tend to overlook critical behavioural dimensions, such as hygiene habits, social taboos, and resistance to change. Without addressing these factors, sanitation efforts may falter despite sufficient physical infrastructure. Effective program design requires a nuanced understanding of the socio-cultural dynamics that influence sanitation practices (Wójcik, 2018).

Integrating insights from WASH education frameworks, such as the FOAM model (Focus, Opportunity, Ability, Motivation), can significantly enhance program success. This model helps practitioners identify behavioural drivers and barriers, aligning interventions with the psychological and social factors that affect hygiene practices. Similarly, the Health Belief Model (HBM) guides the development of health messages that resonate with perceived risks and benefits in communities, thereby increasing behaviour change adoption.

Conducting participatory needs assessments and community dialogues uncovers hidden challenges, such as improper toilet usage, resistance to hygienic norms, or facility neglect. Tailored approaches that incorporate these findings foster culturally relevant and sustainable interventions.

When hygiene education, behavioural nudges, and maintenance training accompany infrastructure development, communities demonstrate more substantial buy-in and improved sanitation outcomes. Its integrated approach builds long-term habits, reinforces local accountability, and ultimately improves public health indicators. Evidence consistently shows that holistic programs—addressing infrastructure, education, and behaviour—outperform those focused on physical construction alone (Esperschuetz et al., 2016).

5.2 Lessons from Bangladesh: Challenging Programmatic Assumptions

Bangladesh offers a compelling case study of how Planners can reform flawed assumptions in sanitation planning. Early efforts in rural areas prioritized toilet distribution, operating under the belief that access would automatically lead to use. This assumption neglected cultural beliefs, privacy concerns, and behavioural habits, resulting in underused facilities and little change in public health outcomes.

Program leaders, acknowledging the disconnect, restructured the strategy to include culturally adapted WASH education, participatory hygiene promotion, and community-based monitoring (Antonkiewicz et al., 2018). Local facilitators conveyed messages in simple, relevant language, and hygiene behaviour became a topic of community dialogue rather than external enforcement.

These adaptations resulted in increased toilet use, improved hygiene behaviours, and more substantial community ownership. By embedding behaviour change communication (BCC) within a broader participatory framework, the intervention aligned infrastructure with social context, ensuring long-term sustainability (Pang et al., 2019).

The Bangladesh experience demonstrates the value of adaptive learning and responsiveness in program design. It affirms that lasting sanitation progress requires more than materials—it demands community empowerment, cultural sensitivity, and ongoing behavioural engagement.

 

5.3 Enhancing Community Engagement for Lasting Solutions

Empowering communities through open inquiry and inclusive dialogue is essential for designing adequate water and sanitation systems. Asking the right questions—about local preferences, taboos, decision-making structures, and maintenance barriers—builds mutual trust and generates locally resonant solutions.

Community-led initiatives strengthen shared ownership and accountability. When residents participate in planning, implementation, and monitoring, they become active stewards of the services they help create. Its engagement reduces dependency on external actors and fosters long-term resilience in both infrastructure and behavioural outcomes (Wójcik, 2018).

To support the It process, stakeholders must shift from prescriptive, top-down approaches to participatory frameworks that honour local knowledge and priorities. Culturally tailored educational campaigns, community-based WASH committees, and regular community feedback sessions ensure that sanitation efforts are seen not as imposed projects but as shared goals.

Programs that embed these participatory elements show higher adaptability, greater uptake of new practices, and stronger institutional memory. When local actors participate from the outset, they help shape more effective and context-specific solutions and develop the capacity to adapt and sustain systems long after external support ends. This is imperative in fragile or under-resourced settings where reliance on centralized systems is risky and unsustainable.

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5.4 Toward a New Paradigm in Water and Sanitation Planning

To overcome historical shortcomings, a new paradigm in sanitation planning must prioritize people-centred, integrative approaches that bridge infrastructure with education, behaviour, and governance.

This shift requires the adoption of policy tools that formalize community participation throughout the program cycle. These tools may include:

• Sanitation Scorecards: Community-created tools to assess and monitor hygiene behaviour and service quality
• Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA): Techniques for involving communities in planning, prioritization, and spatial mapping of sanitation risks
• WASH Committees with Budget Oversight: Formal local groups authorized to manage maintenance funds and oversee accountability
• Behavioural Change Dashboards: Real-time platforms to visualize and track hygiene education outcomes alongside infrastructure metrics

Policy frameworks should institutionalize such tools, ensuring participation is not ad hoc but embedded in governance structures. It means allocating funding specifically for training, behavioural campaigns, and participatory monitoring—not just for construction materials.

In parallel, cross-sectoral partnerships among government agencies, NGOs, schools, healthcare providers, and academic institutions can coordinate knowledge-sharing and expand the reach of successful models. These alliances help integrate WASH into education, health, and urban planning policies, reinforcing systems thinking and breaking silos.

As the global community continues to pursue SDG 6, rethinking assumptions and embracing inclusive, behavior-sensitive approaches becomes more than a recommendation—it becomes a necessity. By centring communities in both design and decision-making, sanitation programs can become more resilient, equitable, and impactful.

6. Fostering Innovation Through Open Inquiry : Empowering Communities to Address Water and Sanitation Challenges

6.1 Encouraging Open-Ended Questions for Innovation

Tackling water and sanitation challenges requires fostering innovation through open-ended inquiry—a process that encourages more profound exploration of root causes, community reflection, and collective problem-solving. Instead of yes-or-no questions or rigid planning templates, communities and stakeholders benefit from questions like: "What are the local sources of contamination, and how can they be addressed collaboratively?" or "What would a clean, dignified sanitation system look like in It village?" (Gondek et al., 2017).

This type of inquiry promotes a culture of participatory innovation, enhancing local ownership and accountability. It shifts communities' roles from recipients of aid to co-creators of context-specific solutions grounded in their lived experiences and cultural practices (Zhu et al., 2022). When community members are encouraged to explore, critique, and propose, they become empowered to lead change on their terms.

To institutionalize open-ended questioning, water and sanitation programs can adopt tools such as:

• Community Forums: Regular, structured gatherings that bring together residents, health workers, and local officials to identify challenges, brainstorm solutions, and track progress.
• Citizen Science Initiatives: Projects where residents collect water quality data, map contamination points, or conduct household hygiene surveys. It builds technical literacy and encourages shared responsibility.
• Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA): Methods such as mapping, seasonal calendars, and problem-ranking exercises that allow diverse groups (including women and youth) to express priorities and shape solutions.
• Mobile Feedback Platforms: SMS- or app-based systems that allow communities to submit complaints, suggest improvements, or track service delivery in real-time.

However, promoting open-ended dialogue is not without challenges. Resistance may arise from institutional hierarchies, political gatekeepers, or technical experts who perceive open inquiry as a threat to centralized control or bureaucratic efficiency. In some communities, social norms may discourage critical questioning, especially from women, youth, or marginalized groups.

To overcome It resistance, programs must:

• Foster safe, inclusive spaces where all voices are welcomed and respected.
• Promote facilitation training for local leaders to manage constructive dialogue without domination or conflict.
• Introduce policy guidelines that mandate consultation processes and guarantee representation of vulnerable groups.
• Demonstrate early wins or success stories that show how open inquiry has led to better results and greater buy-in.

Ultimately, embedding inquiry into program culture not only generates more innovative solutions but also builds democratic legitimacy in water governance.

6.2 The Impact of Open Dialogue in Sub-Saharan Africa

Sub-Saharan Africa offers compelling examples of how open dialogue has improved water governance and sanitation outcomes. Across countries such as Uganda, Kenya, and Ethiopia, community-led conversations have shaped participatory frameworks that respect environmental and cultural specificities. These dialogues prioritize lived experience, allowing residents to articulate sanitation concerns and co-develop relevant interventions (Lu et al., 2024).

In one case, Kenya's Community-Led Total Sanitation (CLTS) campaigns used "triggering" sessions where facilitators posed open-ended, provocative questions to residents about open defecation and its impact. These sessions helped surface taboo issues, prompting emotional engagement and grassroots solutions. Such efforts led to substantial reductions in open defecation and stronger community cohesion around sanitation goals.

In Ethiopia, Water Committees institutionalized regular open dialogues where communities not only managed their boreholes and latrines but also reviewed maintenance budgets and usage behaviours. These dialogues created a feedback loop that informed government and NGO partners about real-time needs and bottlenecks (Kujawiak et al., 2018).

Through these examples, it is clear that inclusive dialogue not only yields practical solutions but also fosters shared responsibility and adaptive capacity, key ingredients in building resilient sanitation systems.

6.3 Integrating Inquiry and Dialogue into Program Design

Embedding open-ended inquiry and collaborative dialogue into program design improves both the quality and sustainability of water and sanitation interventions. Programs that embrace community insights and iterative learning processes become more agile, context-aware, and equitable.

The institutionalizing approach requires formal structures for continuous feedback, such as:

• Multi-stakeholder Planning Committees, where government, NGOs, and community representatives jointly set priorities and review progress
• Annual Participatory Reviews, integrating qualitative and quantitative data into program refinements
• Public Accountability Sessions, where service providers report back to communities on commitments and receive suggestions

Capacity-building is essential to It integration. Training residents in data collection, dialogue facilitation, and communication equips them to take on leadership roles, manage sanitation infrastructure, and hold institutions accountable. It also supports intergenerational knowledge transfer, ensuring that new generations inherit both technical skills and civic engagement practices.

At a broader level, embedding inquiry into sanitation policy aligns with the principles of equity, transparency, and empowerment. It encourages co-learning between institutions and communities and fosters innovations rooted in empathy and shared responsibility.

Programs that champion open inquiry and community dialogue evolve in step with their communities. Its responsiveness builds trust, enhances outcomes, and ensures that water and sanitation solutions remain meaningful amid social, environmental, and political change.

  

7. Removing Bias: Letting Data Speak

7.1 The Importance of Unbiased Policymaking

Adequate water and sanitation policies must originate from neutral, data-driven inquiry rather than political agendas, institutional inertia, or preconceived assumptions. Straightforward, evidence-based questions such as "What are the primary factors contributing to water scarcity?" allow stakeholders to uncover root causes rather than symptoms, thereby designing solutions that align with actual needs (Manyuchi & Sukdeo, 2023; Sun et al., 2022).

Policymaking grounded in objective data strengthens strategic planning and prioritization. Rather than relying on ideological preferences or donor-driven mandates, it provides a consistent basis for decision-making across changing administrations and social dynamics (Nolte et al., 2020). This approach increases both public trust and institutional accountability.

Globally, the difference between biased policies and evidence-based policies is striking. In several low-income countries, sanitation investments have historically been skewed toward urban infrastructure due to political pressure. At the same time, rural communities have continued to suffer from poor hygiene and unsafe water. These top-down decisions—based on visibility rather than vulnerability—have led to underutilized systems and increased inequality. In contrast, countries like Rwanda and Vietnam have implemented data-informed rural sanitation programs that prioritized community-level needs, resulting in higher usage rates and sustained outcomes. The contrast underscores how data-driven approaches support equity and efficiency while biased ones perpetuate exclusion and policy fragmentation.

Furthermore, data-focused strategies enable adaptive governance, allowing stakeholders to monitor progress, respond to emerging challenges, and revise policies in real time. This ability to adapt is essential in the face of climate change, demographic shifts, and economic uncertainty.

As data becomes central to governance, it raises critical ethical concerns. Governments and institutions must ensure transparency in data collection by clearly communicating to communities why they are gathering data, how they intend to use it, and who will have access to it. These practices help build trust. Policymakers must also uphold strong privacy protections, especially when collecting sensitive information such as household or health data in vulnerable communities. Authorities must never use data to stigmatize populations or reinforce structural inequalities. Decision-makers must adopt ethical frameworks to ensure they create responsible and evidence-based policies that prioritize informed consent, respect data ownership, and promote equitable representation.

 

7.2 The Jakarta Case Study: The Role of Evidence-Based Insights

Jakarta's ongoing water crisis provides a compelling case study of how shifting from biased assumptions to data-informed policymaking can lead to transformative change. Initially, flood and drainage issues were treated as isolated technical failures, leading to piecemeal infrastructure upgrades and emergency response cycles (Ju et al., 2022). This approach overlooked the systemic drivers of vulnerability—remarkably rapid, unregulated urban expansion and degraded natural catchments.

An evidence-based reassessment traced the crisis back to land-use patterns, poor urban planning, and inadequate investment in resilient infrastructure. With A more comprehensive understanding, policymakers in Jakarta were able to implement structural reforms that integrated drainage planning with housing development, ecosystem restoration, and climate adaptation (Gong et al., 2020).

Jakarta's revised strategy included robust spatial data, hydrological modelling, and participatory mapping—tools that allowed diverse stakeholders to align priorities. The shift toward integrated, data-driven planning resulted in stronger institutional collaboration, more targeted investments, and broader public support (Shahid et al., 2018).

The case affirms the value of empirical inquiry in challenging surface-level narratives and designing interventions that address both root causes and long-term sustainability. It also highlights how transparency and accountability—made possible through open data platforms and community reporting—build trust between governments and citizens, even in politically complex environments.

Case Study Comparison — Bangladesh vs Jakarta

Bangladesh	Jakarta
Assumption-based toilets	Data-driven drainage & and infrastructure
Initial failure due to behavioural neglect	Successful shift via climate data
Restructured with education campaigns	Integrated urban water resilience

 

7.3 The Global Implications of Data-Driven Policy

Jakarta's experience resonates globally, underscoring the urgent need to replace assumption-driven policymaking with empirical, context-sensitive approaches. Misguided assumptions—whether about community behaviours, infrastructure requirements, or health risks—often result in wasted resources and disillusioned populations. Data-driven approaches, on the other hand, improve targeting, effectiveness, and legitimacy.

Moreover, the global sanitation and water sectors are increasingly recognizing the value of data transparency, citizen monitoring, and open-access systems. Initiatives such as the Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) by WHO and UNICEF have standardized key indicators, allowing for more informed comparison, benchmarking, and policy learning across countries.

Evidence-based policymaking also facilitates cross-regional knowledge exchange. When teams rigorously document programs and share data, successful strategies can be replicated and adapted. Conversely, identifying failures early through data allows others to avoid repeating mistakes, thereby fostering a global culture of learning.

Still, to fully harness the benefits of data, governments and institutions must commit to ethical data governance. It includes building local data literacy, ensuring community participation in indicator development, and protecting the privacy of individuals and households involved in monitoring systems.

Embedding data at the heart of water and sanitation policy promotes not only technical efficiency but also social equity, innovation, and resilience. As global development increasingly demands adaptive, inclusive governance models, the role of data will only grow more critical.

8. Eliminating Bias in Water Policy: Using Data-Driven Insights for Effective Solutions

8.1 The Value of Ongoing Dialogue and Inclusive Inquiry

Inclusive, continuous dialogue is essential for identifying overlooked challenges in water and sanitation policy development. Open-ended engagement—prompting questions such as "Is there anything else to consider?"—helps surface community-specific concerns, particularly from marginalized voices (Lin et al., 2022; Lu et al., 2016). The process fosters broader participation and uncovers contextual realities often missed in top-down policy approaches.

Evidence from India illustrates how inclusive engagement enabled health workers to identify women's safety concerns related to sanitation that had previously been absent from formal policy discussions. These insights underscore the value of inclusive inquiry in improving policy responsiveness by recognizing diverse lived experiences (Mezhevova et al., 2023).

To further strengthen inclusivity, consultation mechanisms must actively consider gender and disability perspectives. Women, girls, and persons with disabilities often face unique challenges in accessing water services, such as mobility barriers, privacy concerns, and safety risks. Integrating their voices ensures that water and sanitation services are not only functional but also equitable and inclusive.

The iterative nature of dialogue allows strategies to evolve with shifting community dynamics and emerging insights. Its adaptability ensures that water and sanitation interventions remain responsive and sustainable over time.

The effectiveness of inclusive inquiry is further enhanced when paired with data-driven analysis. These tools validate community feedback, identify trends, and support evidence-based decision-making, thereby bridging the gap between technical planning and social equity.

8.2 Strengthening Inclusivity for Sustainable Policy Design

Embedding inclusive consultation mechanisms into institutional frameworks fosters equity in water governance. Such mechanisms ensure that planning processes reflect a comprehensive range of needs, thereby reducing the risk of exclusion and enhancing service appropriateness across different demographic and social groups.

Meaningful consultation builds transparency and trust, which are essential for long-term cooperation between communities and governing institutions. Trust facilitates the co-creation of policies and strengthens behavioural change efforts required for the effective use and maintenance of water infrastructure.

Centering the perspectives of historically marginalized populations—including women, persons with disabilities, Indigenous communities, and rural residents—helps correct systemic inequities in access and decision-making. Its redirection fosters justice and empowers communities to shape services that align with their lived realities and values.

Gender-sensitive and disability-inclusive consultations require thoughtful design. It may involve accessible meeting formats, inclusive communication strategies, trained facilitators, and safe spaces that enable all individuals to participate meaningfully. When implemented effectively, these approaches ensure broader representation and more equitable outcomes.

Regular feedback loops through community engagement support ongoing evaluation of policy effectiveness. These mechanisms provide opportunities to adapt strategies, allocate resources more efficiently, and improve outcomes over time.

8.3 Cross-Regional Reflections: A Broader View on Inclusive Practices

Cross-regional comparisons offer valuable insights into inclusive water governance. In Latin America, countries such as Bolivia and Colombia have made significant strides in institutionalizing participatory water management. By recognizing Indigenous water rights and promoting community co-management, these countries have strengthened transparency and local ownership of water resources (Castro, 2007; Boelens et al., 2010).

In the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region, localized efforts in countries such as Morocco have sought to increase women's involvement in traditionally male-dominated water committees. While progress is gradual, such efforts illustrate how cultural context influences the design and impact of inclusion strategies (UN Women, 2020).

These regional perspectives highlight the importance of flexible, context-sensitive models of engagement. Although approaches may vary, shared principles—such as participatory governance, cultural awareness, and institutional support—remain universally relevant to eliminating bias and promoting equity in water policy.

Eliminating bias in water policy requires intentional, inclusive, and iterative approaches that prioritize marginalized voices. By integrating gender and disability perspectives, institutionalizing dialogue mechanisms, and drawing from global experiences, policymakers can design interventions that are more equitable, contextually grounded, and resilient. Ultimately, empowering communities to contribute meaningfully to policy decisions enhances the legitimacy and long-term success of water and sanitation governance systems.

 

9. Asking the Right Questions: Collective Action for Sustainable Water and Sanitation Solutions

9.1 The Role of Collective Action in Addressing Water and Sanitation Issues

The global water and sanitation crisis demands a coordinated, inclusive response that transcends sectors and scales. Collective action, grounded in informed questioning, advocacy, and shared accountability, enables communities to influence policies and practices through evidence, transparency, and innovation (Mei-jun et al., 2021; Obarska–Pempkowiak et al., 2015).

Active community participation enhances the legitimacy and relevance of water governance frameworks. When a broad range of voices contributes to decision-making, policies reflect the real-world needs of local populations. Its inclusivity not only improves outcomes but also fosters a sense of solidarity that bridges professional, geographic, and cultural divides.

Strategic collaboration among stakeholders—governments, civil society, the private sector, and communities—produces more integrated and sustainable solutions. Each actor brings unique expertise, and when aligned, their efforts address systemic water and sanitation challenges with greater coherence and efficiency (Sowmya et al., 2024).

Empowered individuals and community leaders play a catalytic role in raising awareness, mobilizing resources, and connecting grassroots concerns with institutional frameworks. Community mobilization frequently serves as the entry point for broader policy shifts by surfacing on-the-ground realities that inform scalable and adaptive interventions. The grassroots-to-policy continuum is essential for ensuring that national water strategies are grounded in community priorities and environmental realities.

Collective action builds momentum through a shared vision of water security, allowing local initiatives to scale up and influence regional and global water governance systems.

9.2 Mobilizing Communities for Immediate Action

Urgent water and sanitation needs require rapid, organized responses at the community level. When grounded in informed dialogue, such mobilization offers not only short-term relief but also lays the foundation for long-term resilience and transformation.

In regions experiencing acute water scarcity or unsafe sanitation, grassroots actions have sparked community-led solutions, such as decentralized water treatment, hygiene awareness campaigns, and infrastructure repairs. These interventions improve public health and restore community dignity while fostering local innovation and ownership.

Timely and coordinated community responses reduce fragmentation by aligning resources and goals. Its strategic coherence prevents redundancy and enhances the impact of interventions, ensuring that services reach the most vulnerable populations.

Public engagement also increases awareness of rights and responsibilities related to water and sanitation. Informed communities are more capable of monitoring services, reporting issues, and participating meaningfully in governance.

Community mobilization, when inclusive and cross-sectoral, strengthens social cohesion and builds shared ownership of both problems and solutions. Solidarity is essential for sustaining progress and adapting to future challenges.

9.3 Integrating Strategic Questioning and Dialogue for Lasting Change

Lasting improvements in water and sanitation governance require a culture of strategic questioning and inclusive dialogue. These practices make policies more adaptive, participatory, and effective across diverse settings.

Clear objectives, simplified language, and transparent evaluation metrics enable continuous learning and improvement. Through ongoing inquiry, policymakers can revisit assumptions, test new approaches, and adapt to changing environmental, demographic, or political conditions.

Inclusive dialogue ensures that a broad range of stakeholders—particularly those often excluded—have a voice in shaping policy throughout the planning, implementation, and monitoring phases. Its engagement increases legitimacy and long-term commitment to the outcomes.

Periodic review of key questions also enables incorporation of emerging evidence and community feedback, avoiding policy stagnation and ensuring responsiveness to persistent or newly arising issues.

Together, inquiry and dialogue shift policymaking from a top-down directive into a participatory, community-centred endeavour. Its transformation enhances equity, fosters co-learning, and encourages context-sensitive solutions that align with both local needs and national development goals.

9.4 Summary of Key Principles for Equitable Water Governance

The author synthesizes the core elements discussed throughout this chapter to provide a clear and cohesive understanding; the following principles offer a framework for inclusive, adaptive water and sanitation governance:

Principle	Description
Inquiry	Promotes reflective, evidence-based approaches by continuously asking relevant questions.
Inclusivity	Ensures diverse voices are heard, particularly marginalized groups.
Precision	Uses data and feedback to tailor interventions to specific local conditions.
Metrics	Applies transparent indicators to track progress and inform adaptive strategies.
Dialogue	Facilitates open communication and trust-building across stakeholder groups.

 

These principles reinforce one another to produce sustainable, community-rooted outcomes in water and sanitation governance.

Conclusion

The chapter highlights how collective action, community mobilization, and strategic inquiry serve as foundational elements in advancing equitable and sustainable water and sanitation solutions. Drawing from real-world experiences in Bangladesh, Jakarta, and other regions, the discussion illustrates how local actions—when supported by inclusive governance and responsive policy frameworks—can shape broader institutional change.

By operationalizing the principles of inquiry, inclusivity, precision, metrics, and dialogue, stakeholders can build resilient systems that address immediate needs while anticipating future challenges. Its unified and participatory model is not only replicable but also essential for achieving global water security and public health advancement.

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