Toilets, Contracts, and Capture: The Hidden Cost of Corruption in South Africa's Sanitation Crisis

                                                         Author : AM Tris Hardyanto

When a child dies beneath a collapsing school toilet, and the contract was sealed not by merit but by proximity to power, it is not just a tragedy; it is a revelation. It reveals a system in which public trust is sold, justice is buried under cement, and dignity has a price. Sanitation is not charity — it is a right. To remain silent is to become part of the rot. Corruption kills. Integrity builds. Choose your side.

1. Infrastructure for Whom?

In the global discourse surrounding water and sanitation (WASH) infrastructure, systemic failures often stem from corrupt governance systems rather than a lack of financial resources or technological shortcomings. South Africa serves as a poignant case, showcasing how elite manipulation of public goods can transform essential services into profit-generating ventures for a select few.

"Sanitation is not a service; it is a survival mechanism." The death of Michael Komape in 2014, who drowned in a school pit latrine, was not an accident; it was a direct consequence of infrastructural neglect and state apathy. Such tragedies underscore the need to rethink WASH not just as development but as justice work, focused on accountability and equity for communities long denied their dignity.

The situation is illustrated by the tragic incidents surrounding school sanitation, exemplified by the death of Michael Komape in 2014, who drowned in a pit latrine due to inadequate facilities and negligence. Such examples underscore the imperative to rethink WASH policies to emphasize justice and equity for impoverished communities, necessitating a focus on accountability and social equity in the allocation of resources and infrastructure commitments (Robins, 2014; Hanf et al., 2011).

The allegation of elite capture in WASH services highlights a broader issue where the interests of the wealthy overshadow the essential needs of poorer populations. Specifically, in South Africa, the complex interplay of politics and corruption, especially during Jacob Zuma's presidency, reveals how the allocation of contracts to private firms, often with ties to political elites, can circumvent ethical and operational standards for effective public service (Robins, 2014; McFarlane & Silver, 2016; Barnes, 2018). As global research illustrates, the prevalence of corruption significantly undermines public welfare initiatives, leading to cycles of neglect among vulnerable communities (Hanf et al., 2011; Karim et al., 2023). Policymakers must create frameworks ensuring that WASH contracts are transparently awarded, effectively monitored, and accountable to the communities they serve, affirming sanitation as a fundamental human right (Carrard et al., 2020; Meier et al., 2012).

2. Anatomy of a Scandal: Gupta Contracts and School Toilets

The contracts scandal linked to the Gupta family under Jacob Zuma exemplifies the nexus of elite capture and governmental corruption within South Africa's sanitation sector. These contracts granted significant sums to firms closely associated with the Guptas for constructing toilets in rural schools, resulting in facilities that were poorly built or left incomplete. The implications of the misallocation of resources highlight severe failures in oversight and accountability mechanisms. Reports indicate that many of these contracts were structured in a way that bypassed standard operational protocols and quality checks, increasing risks to the very children they were intended to benefit (McFarlane & Silver, 2016; Coultas et al., 2022).

The outcomes of these contract mismanagements reflect broader systemic issues where neoliberal policies have eroded stringent oversight in favor of profit-driven motives. Consequently, public funds designated for critical infrastructure have become tools of patronage, benefitting only a select elite under the guise of developmental aid. The South African experience aligns with trends seen globally; corrupt practices consistently lead to inadequate sanitation services, directly affecting health outcomes and perpetuating inequities for marginalized populations (Pusok, 2016; Valcourt et al., 2020; Bayu et al., 2020). Thus, advancing legal frameworks that expose and dismantle cartel-like behaviors within sanitation contracts is crucial for restoring public trust and ensuring the right to safe sanitation for all citizens (Lucas, 2016; Alfada, 2019).

The WASH sector is the perfect storm: weak regulation, high public spending, and low accountability.

One approach to reforming these systemic failings involves developing robust legal instruments and accountability structures aimed at deterring corrupt practices in service delivery. Research supports establishing more apparent legal avenues for public accountability and implementing rigorous judicial oversight of procurement processes. Countries facing similar challenges have witnessed varying levels of success with such frameworks, suggesting that international best practices, especially those enhancing transparency, can be tailored to local contexts to mitigate corruption risks in the sanitation sector (Bennett‐Guerrero et al., 2014; Carrard et al., 2020;

Moreover, education and advocacy initiatives aimed at empowering community stakeholders are critical. By fostering greater involvement from civil society, local governments can be held accountable for ethical practices in service delivery, ensuring community needs take precedence in sanitation projects (Hutton, 2012; Schumacher, 2013). Such shifts not only reinforce democratic governance but also advance social justice imperatives, positioning sanitation as an area ripe for reform that prioritizes the rights and dignity of the disenfranchised (Hanf et al., 2011; Carrard et al., 2020).

As South Africa grapples with these pressing issues, policymakers must draw insights from both local and global experiences of corruption in the ASH sectors. A comprehensive approach incorporating diverse strategies—from robust legal frameworks to community engagement—provides a pathway to restore integrity and efficacy within sanitation services, enabling the realization of universal access to safe sanitation as a cornerstone of public health and human rights. The focus must remain on separating public governance from elite capture, ensuring that priorities align with the well-being of the most impoverished and vulnerable, thereby repositioning sanitation as integral to social justice (Robins, 2014; Carrard et al., 2020).

Toward Justice-Oriented Design in WASH Policies

Reflecting on the South African sanitation crisis necessitates acknowledging corruption's profound impact on public health and social equity. The crisis extends beyond a local issue; it is illustrative of a global predicament where political capture and regulatory failures allow elite interests to undermine essential services. As policymakers seek answers to critical questions surrounding access and infrastructure in WASH, empirical evidence suggests a compelling need for justice-oriented designs that hold entities accountable and prioritize the voices of the affected communities (Francois et al., 2020; Mphambukeli, 2020).

The implications of these insights are multifaceted. Policymaking must evolve, embracing comprehensive strategies that integrate community input, robust legal frameworks, and stringent accountability measures within sanitation projects. By decisively addressing corruption and elevating the experiences of people with low incomes, South Africa and similar emerging economies can strive toward a more equitable state in WASH service delivery that honors the intrinsic human right to sanitation and builds a just society (Carrard et al., 2020; Karim et al., 2023).

In conclusion, addressing the complex nexus of politics, corruption, and infrastructure requires a multifaceted approach that encompasses not just policy and reform but an overarching commitment to social justice and empowerment of marginalized communities. As the world witnesses ongoing challenges posed by inadequate sanitation and political corruption, the need for sustained efforts aimed at safeguarding public interests and ensuring equitable access to water and sanitation services remains paramount—a clarion call for justice in the urban landscape of South Africa and beyond (Robins, 2014; McFarlane & Silver, 2016; Bayu et al., 2020).

 

3. Hidden Mechanisms of Capture: Shell Firms, Loopholes, and Silence

The phenomenon of elite capture remains a critical barrier to adequate sanitation and water service delivery, characterized by the strategic use of opaque procurement systems and shell companies. In South Africa, the construction of sanitation infrastructure has been severely compromised by the operational practices of contractors who utilize convoluted financial structures to disguise their true identities and evade rigorous scrutiny. Manipulation is exemplified by the establishment of companies that lack adequate transparency and effectively function as vehicles of corruption within the WASH sector. The resultant consequences are dire, leading to infrastructure failures that disproportionately affect marginalized communities. The role of governmental agencies, often weakened by political interference, further exacerbates the problem, as these bodies fail to conduct necessary due diligence, thereby facilitating the perpetuation of a corrupt ecosystem (Correa et al., 2019).

These mechanisms tend to flourish within regulatory environments that are inadequately equipped to counteract such behaviors. As shown in research conducted within the Brazilian context, political interference often undermines the regulatory autonomy of agencies, systematically impairing their ability to execute effective oversight (Correa et al., 2019; Woods, 2017). Similarly, in South Africa, instances of direct political meddling in the decision-making processes of state-owned enterprises (SOEs) and contractors handling sanitation projects foster environments where elites can operate with impunity. For instance, the Gupta family's involvement in sanitation contracts highlights how state capture diverts state resources intended for public goods towards personal gain, showcasing the failure of both governance structures and regulatory frameworks to protect public interests from the predations of oligarchs (Correa et al., 2019).

Another pivotal aspect of elite capture involves institutional silence and complicity among stakeholders who are either unwilling or unable to resist corrupt practices. In many instances, the entrenchment of corrupt systems is paradoxically sustained by the silence of affected communities and civil society organizations. Silence stems from fear of retribution, lack of agency, and a pervasive belief that engagement with corrupt systems may yield better individual outcomes than opposition. Consequently, the failure to voice concerns about substandard sanitation conditions becomes a critical factor in sustaining the corrupt practices that proliferate within damaged governance structures ( Patacconi & Vikander, 2015).

"When toilets collapse, so does trust in the state."

To confront these challenges, governments must develop comprehensive strategies aimed at dismantling the mechanisms that allow for oligarchic control over essential services. Reform initiatives should prioritize the establishment of transparent procurement processes, robust accountability frameworks, and stringent oversight measures to mitigate the influence of corrupt practices in the WASH sector (Hsu & Chao, 2022). For instance, enhancing agency capacity through professional development initiatives and increasing community involvement in decision-making processes can bolster efforts to prevent elite capture and improve accountability in sanitation service delivery (Greenstein, 2023). Furthermore, employing technology-driven solutions, such as blockchain for tracking contracts and expenditures, may enhance transparency and deter corrupt practices by providing verifiable records of transactions and contract allocations (Woods, 2017).

3.1 Policy Recommendations: Preventing Oligarchic Control in WASH

One of the foremost policy recommendations involves instituting rigorous legal frameworks focused on transparency and accountability in procurement processes. Effective implementation of conflict-of-interest regulations that disallow companies with prior political connections from obtaining contracts can significantly mitigate the risk of elite capture. Continuous audit and evaluation of financial activities, empowered by independent oversight bodies, can serve as effective deterrents against corrupt practices Patacconi & Vikander, 2015; Correa et al., 2019). Alongside legislative measures, fostering civil Society's role in monitoring sanitation projects can strengthen community engagement and accountability. Civic engagement should be catalyzed through partnerships between governmental authorities and nongovernmental organizations to amplify the voices of marginalized communities who are often most affected by these failures Correa et al., 2019).

Additionally, policies designed to prevent urban real estate oligarchs from exploiting WASH improvements must centre on the preservation of community assets and rights. Policymakers should aim to establish zoning laws that protect informal settlements from encroachment while ensuring that any infrastructure improvements truly benefit resident communities rather than serve to increase property values at their expense Inusah & Dwommor, 2018). For instance, regulatory frameworks could be established requiring comprehensive impact assessments for sanitation projects to identify potential displacement issues proactively, thereby safeguarding resident interests and minimizing adverse effects on already vulnerable populations.

In response to urban land pressures, the approach to WASH improvements should encompass a rights-based framework that prioritizes the needs of existing community members rather than the economic aspirations of developers. Policies that promote participatory planning methods where residents have a direct role in defining sanitation and water management priorities further reinforce community ownership of such projects, creating an intrinsic disincentive against elite appropriation Greenstein, 2023).

3.2  Ensuring Justice in Sanitation Services

Addressing the entwined issues of elite capture, corruption, and inadequate sanitation systems is fundamental for establishing justice-oriented governance in South Africa and similar contexts. Systematic reforms that prioritize transparency, accountability, and community empowerment can dismantle the entrenched structures that facilitate elite control and perpetuate inequality. The establishment of sound policies aimed at combating both direct and indirect forms of corruption within the WASH sector, alongside proactive measures to protect marginalized communities from displacement, reflects a commitment to human rights and social equity. Through these approaches, governments can move toward a framework of accountability that not only serves the necessities of development but also embodies the aspirations for equitable access to essential services, reclaiming water and sanitation as fundamental rights rather than commodity-controlled privileges for the elite Correa et al., 2019; Woods, 2017).

4. Human Impact: When Pit Toilets Kill

The human toll of inadequate sanitation in South Africa, particularly the use of pit toilets, presents a tragic reflection of systemic failures in governance and infrastructure. Children are frequently victims of poorly designed and maintained pit latrines, which serve not merely as unsanitary installations but as instruments of negligence that can lead to severe injuries and fatalities. Such incidents result in profound trauma for families and communities, impacting their trust in governmental promises for improved living conditions. As these tragic narratives unfold, they illustrate a broader pattern of state failure that is increasingly normalized for many rural citizens. The section seeks to explore the multifaceted human costs associated with sanitation failures while drawing on testimonials and reports that highlight how poor infrastructure delivery exacerbates inequality and disenfranchises the vulnerable Acharya et al., 2013; Minh & Hung, 2011).

The reality in many communities is one of systemic neglect, where safety and sanitation converge to create environments that are perilous for the most defenceless citizens, particularly children. Numerous reports have emerged detailing incidents where children have tragically drowned in open sewage pits or been injured due to the collapse of poorly constructed facilities. Such instances result not only in immediate physical harm but also create lasting psychological and social scars on affected families, thus manifesting long-term repercussions for community cohesion (Schiel et al., 2021). Families that experience these tragedies often feel abandoned as trust in government services dissipates, leading to a resignation that fosters a collective sense of helplessness. The cycle of trauma and disenfranchisement illustrates the crucial failures of state and local authorities in delivering essential services and operationalizing commitments to human rights regarding sanitation (Freitas et al., 2023).

Toilets should not be tools of tyranny."

Moreover, the strategic placement of such facilities in areas controlled by powerful interests further complicates the situation. In regions where oligarchic structures dominate the political landscape, the challenges in implementing effective WASH (Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene) policies are magnified. The presence of entrenched interests and corrupt practices inhibits the ability of governments to prioritize and meaningfully support sanitation improvements, effectively rendering legislative efforts futile in the face of systemic deprivation (Rêgo et al., 2013; Kamara et al., 2017). Consequently, the inability to create equitable sanitation access becomes a tool of oppression, particularly affecting low-income communities that lack the political leverage or resources to voice their grievances efficiently. The challenges facing families in such settings are not only health-related; they encompass deep-seated social justice issues that highlight the inequitable distributions of power and resources (Jung et al., 2017).

Efforts to address these challenges must begin with an acute awareness of communities' lived experiences, ensuring that WASH policies are not merely theoretical frameworks but practical, ground-level implementations that reflect the needs of disempowered populations. Engaging community members in the design and operationalization of sanitation initiatives is a critical step towards rectifying the historical neglect they have faced. By incorporating local voices into policymaking processes, the government can foster a sense of ownership among residents and enhance the efficacy of sanitation interventions aimed at addressing the unique risks present in their environments (Kwiringira et al., 2014).

 

4.1 Overcoming Implementation Challenges in Oligarch Areas

Obstacles to WASH policy implementation in sectors controlled by powerful interests are multifaceted and deeply entrenched. One significant challenge is the culture of impunity that often accompanies such control, as elite interests utilize their positions to influence governmental decisions and public resource allocation. Such dynamics can lead to a disproportionate emphasis on profit over the public good, resulting in sanitation projects that cater to affluent populations while neglecting the needs of marginalized communities (Rêgo et al., 2013; Kamara et al., 2017). These influences can create an environment where corruption is both normalized and expected, effectively diffusing accountability.

Overcoming these challenges necessitates a multipronged approach aimed at reforming governance structures, enhancing transparency, and empowering local communities. Integrated systems of accountability must be established to ensure that project allocations are directly tied to community needs and real-world impacts rather than the interests of financially powerful entities. Policy frameworks must advocate for enhanced public consultation processes, where community stakeholders are actively involved in decision-making concerning sanitation services (Baum et al., 2013).

Research has illustrated that strong community engagement results in improved health outcomes and public trust in government initiatives (Shahraki et al., 2010). Programs implemented without sufficient local insight often yield little benefit; conversely, those that actively involve the community in dialogue and decision-making processes tend to produce far more promising results. For instance, in regions facing severe sanitation challenges, interventions designed with community input have demonstrated substantial declines in sanitation-related diseases, underscoring the potential benefits of participatory governance models (Kwiringira et al., 2014).

"Safe sanitation is the front line of gender justice." In addition, educational initiatives can play a pivotal role in shifting public perceptions about the importance of sanitation and hygiene. Awareness campaigns highlighting the health implications tied to poor sanitation practices and infrastructure can galvanize community action, potentially even pressuring local leaders to act in their constituents' best interests (Kwiringira et al., 2014). Such educational efforts should not only target local populations but also aim to engage broader national and international stakeholders, emphasizing the urgent necessity of addressing systemic inequities exacerbated by elite control over sanitation services (Schiel et al., 2021; Godana & Mengistie, 2017).

Finally, to effectively mitigate the impact of elite control, legislation mandating transparency in public contracting and procurement must be vigorously enforced. Requiring all sanitation contracts to undergo rigorous public scrutiny and third-party evaluation can constrain corrupt practices and underline the importance of accountability (Baum et al., 2013). By implementing such measures, governments can begin to dismantle the networks of influence that bolster oligarchic control while also reinforcing community trust in the state and its commitment to providing fundamental human rights.

4.2 A Call for Equitable Sanitation Solutions

The rising urgency surrounding South Africa's sanitation crisis, particularly the tragedy of pit toilets, serves as a grim reminder of the systemic failures at play. As children continue to suffer and die due to preventable sanitation-related incidents, it is clear that the issues extend far beyond infrastructural inadequacies; they underscore deep-rooted inequities in society that must be addressed head-on. Empowering communities, enforcing transparent governance practices, and fostering inclusive policymaking can play essential roles in creating a more equitable future for sanitation access.

Ensuring that marginalized communities have a voice in discussions about their health and safety is crucial to effecting lasting change. As local contexts differ significantly, adopting practices that promote community ownership and stakeholder engagement can help delineate effective sanitation strategies that respond not only to individual needs but also to broader social dynamics. It is only through these comprehensive, community-led initiatives that systemic inequities fostered by corruption and elite controls can be dismantled.

By recognizing the painful human impact of sanitation failures and committing to principled, equitable systems of decision-making and resource allocation, South Africa can move toward a future where the rights to safe, dignified sanitation are guaranteed for every citizen, regardless of their socioeconomic background. Accountability, empowerment, and transparency must become the guiding principles of sanitation policy implementation, ensuring no child suffers needlessly and that collective trust in government institutions is reinstated.

 

5. Rewiring the System—From Contracts to Communities

The imperative for structural reforms in South Africa's water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) sector has gained notable traction in the wake of the Zondo Commission's findings regarding state capture. The challenge now lies in translating these legal determinations into practical, people-centered WASH systems that prioritize community needs and foster transparency. The approach can be achieved through various key reforms, including the implementation of transparent digital procurement processes, the use of blockchain technology for fund tracking, the establishment of independent WASH ombudsperson offices, and the introduction of participatory budgeting mechanisms. Such reforms not only promote accountability but also encourage community engagement in decision-making processes that affect their lives Daniel et al., 2021; Garuba et al., 2016).

Transparent digital procurement systems can significantly transform the contracting landscape in WASH. By utilizing platforms that allow stakeholders to view contracts, expenditures, and project timelines in real time, communities can hold contractors and governmental bodies accountable for delivering promised services. Promotes a culture of transparency that directly counters the past practices of corruption and mismanagement that have marked the sector (Garuba et al., 2016). Integrating blockchain technology for fund tracking further enhances transparency by providing an immutable record of financial transactions, ensuring that funds are traceable, and allowing community members to engage in oversight effectively (VilaGuilera et al., 2021).

Additionally, the establishment of independent WASH ombudsperson offices can serve as a critical intervention point, allowing communities to report malpractices and seek redress without fear of reprisal. These offices would operate with a mandate to investigate complaints regarding service delivery, providing a platform for elevating community voices and ensuring their concerns are addressed (Fisher et al., 2015). Coupled with participatory budgeting initiatives, wherein community members are actively involved in prioritizing how WASH funds are allocated, such reforms can shift power dynamics. A community-centric approach not only empowers residents but can lead to more aligned priorities concerning local sanitation needs, ultimately enhancing service delivery (Walther et al., 2025).

A fundamental change to the current system also includes implementing community-based monitoring systems, which can take the form of "toilet report cards" or similar evaluative tools. By collecting feedback directly from users on the quality of sanitation facilities and the surrounding infrastructure, communities can create a grassroots level of accountability. Input can guide local authorities in making informed decisions and improvements while fostering a sense of ownership and responsibility among residents (Barrington, 2025).

5.1 Policies to Enhance Financial Transparency

In order to guarantee that there is a requirement for and an ability to enforce financial openness among elites, policymakers can adopt frameworks that hold public officials and contractors to rigorous standards of accountability. Mandatory disclosure laws could require that all financial transactions related to public contracts, especially in the WASH sector, be made available for public scrutiny (Jordanova et al., 2015). Implementing comprehensive auditing processes that include community representatives can deter financial mismanagement by adding a layer of oversight that serves as both a check and a balance against corrupt practices. Furthermore, penalties for noncompliance should be sufficiently stringent to act as a deterrent to unethical behaviour (Nounkeu et al., 2023).

In addition, the establishment of whistleblower protections can encourage citizens and employees to report corruption without fear of retaliation. By fostering a culture of integrity and transparency, the government can help dismantle the silos of secrecy that often surround elite financial dealings. Training programs aimed at informing community members about their rights and the processes for authorities should also instate a system to report irregularities, thus further empowering citizens to partake in governance (Han, 2018).

5.2 Tailoring WASH Policies to Impoverished Communities

Designing WASH policies to address the needs of impoverished communities necessitates explicitly understanding the unique challenges these populations face and the socioeconomic conditions influencing their access to water and sanitation services. Research highlights that community ownership, fostering a sense of investment in local WASH initiatives, dramatically improves the sustainability and effectiveness of these programs (Armah et al., 2018). Customizing interventions that resonate with local realities and cultural practices can enhance acceptance and participation among community members.

A crucial policy component should also involve investing in education and capacity building within impoverished communities. Empowering residents with the knowledge to manage their sanitation needs effectively can lead to improved community health outcomes and greater self-sufficiency (Domini et al., 2022). Moreover, policies should prioritize equitable resource allocation that considers the specific needs and vulnerabilities of these populations. Policymakers must ensure that they do not disproportionately divert resources to wealthier neighborhoods under the pretext of improved service delivery (Keller et al., 2021).

Furthermore, inclusive programming that engages women and marginalized groups in the design and implementation of WASH projects is vital to achieving transformative social change. Historical gender biases in service delivery often mean women bear the brunt of poor sanitation. Policies that recognize and address these inequities can create more just systems (Berendes et al., 2022).

5.3 A Path Toward Empowered and Transparent WASH Systems

The evolution of South Africa's WASH infrastructure from a system plagued by corruption and inefficiency to one that embodies transparency, accountability, and community engagement is both imperative and achievable. By embracing modern technologies and participatory governance models, the state can realign WASH services to reflect the rights and needs of impoverished communities. Effort necessitates a collective commitment from all stakeholders, including residents, governmental authorities, and civil society organizations, to advocate for transformative changes across the sector.

The required shift recognizes water and sanitation as not merely services but fundamental human rights and public goods that deserve robust protection against elite capture and mismanagement. With sustained commitment to these reforms, South Africa can lead by example in demonstrating how community-driven and transparent governance can successfully address longstanding disparities within the WASH sector, ultimately paving the way toward equitable access to essential services for all citizens (Wada et al., 2022; Geremew et al., 2023).

6. Aid, Advocacy, and the International Lens

International aid plays a crucial role in funding various Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) programs in countries characterized by fragile democracies. However, in the absence of robust accountability mechanisms, there is a tangible risk that international aid may inadvertently reinforce elite capture, thereby entrenching the very inequities it seeks to address. The section discusses several strategies through which aid agencies can enhance their accountability safeguards, facilitating effective and equitable disbursement of funds while fostering community-led initiatives. It will also examine the importance of advocacy and awareness campaigns in promoting robust WASH policies among the general public Cifuentes‐Faura, 2023)(Pamment, 2019;

6.1 Leveraging International Aid for WASH Initiatives

One of the fundamental ways that governments and organizations can leverage international aid to support WASH initiatives, particularly in poverty-stricken areas, is through the implementation of equity impact assessments. These assessments allow donors and development partners to gauge the effectiveness of proposed interventions on vulnerable groups, ensuring that support is directed toward those who need it most. Effectively integrating an equity lens into program design involves evaluating the socioeconomic conditions of target communities and measuring potential impacts on various population segments, particularly marginalized groups (Wijayanti et al., 2023; Milić et al., 2022). ensures that funds are allocated in a manner that promotes social justice rather than merely perpetuating existing power dynamics.

Additionally, incorporating community-based auditing practices can significantly enhance the effectiveness of aid disbursements. By empowering local citizens to oversee the financial flow and implementation of WASH projects, aid agencies can create a system of shared responsibility and transparency. Community members, well-acquainted with local needs and challenges, are uniquely positioned to identify discrepancies and inefficiencies within funded initiatives. Joint assessment tools that integrate traditional methods with modern technology, such as mobile reporting applications, enable real-time monitoring and data collection, thereby elevating community input in decision-making processes and refining project delivery (Jones & Hameiri, 2021; Holzapfel, 2016).

Another critical measure involves conditioning disbursements on established transparency benchmarks. Aid agencies should implement policies that require recipient governments and organizations to provide regular reports on expenditure and service outcomes, which independent auditing mechanisms could verify. As evidenced by other regions experiencing similar challenges, countries that maintain focused transparency requirements often witness improved governance and reduced instances of corruption. Direct linkage affirms the need for constant dialogue between aid agencies and local actors, ensuring that aid flows contribute to sustainable WASH improvements rather than exacerbate elite capture (Keijzer, 2015); (Arapis & Reitano, 2017;

6.2 Advocacy and Awareness Campaigns for WASH Policies

Advocacy and awareness campaigns can be powerful tools in promoting WASH policies among the general public. They can capitalize on local and international media platforms to shed light on persistent injustices. Such campaigns can act as a catalyst for change by mobilizing community members, local stakeholders, and global citizens, emphasizing the critical nature of sustainable WASH services. For instance, utilizing powerful storytelling techniques to share personal experiences of individuals affected by inadequate sanitation services can evoke strong emotional responses, thereby fostering a greater understanding of the specific challenges faced by disenfranchised communities (Amin et al., 2023; Palagashvili & Williamson, 2021).

Social media platforms can serve as ideal avenues for amplifying these stories, reaching broader audiences while encouraging public dialogue about the necessity of improved WASH services. Advocacy efforts that harness digital storytelling, combined with traditional outreach strategies, enhance public awareness and ultimately stimulate political action aimed at challenging institutional apathy regarding sanitation issues (Simmons et al., 2021; OmosaManyonyi et al., 2023).

Furthermore, coalition building among civil society organizations working across sectors—such as health, education, and women's rights—can significantly amplify voices advocating for WASH improvements. When organizations representing diverse interests unify their efforts, they can present a more coherent and powerful narrative that underscores the interconnections between sanitation, health, and socioeconomic development. Collaborative advocacy can attract broader support for policy changes at both local and national levels (Pamment, 2019; Arapis & Reitano, 2017).

 

6.3 A Collaborative Path Forward

Until communities control their toilets, they will not control their futures."

Transforming the landscape of WASH in poverty-stricken areas demands a concerted effort to leverage international aid effectively while ensuring that transparency, community engagement, and inclusivity become integral components of service provision. Through the implementation of equity impact assessments and community-led auditing processes, aid agencies can foster sustainable enhancements in WASH. At the same time, conditioned disbursements anchored in accountability frameworks can mitigate the risks of elite capture.

The role of advocacy and public awareness cannot be underestimated, as amplifying local injustices and enabling meaningful dialogue about sanitation needs will drive systemic change. By intertwining funding and advocacy efforts, the international community can affirm its commitment to building resilient WASH systems that prioritize the rights and needs of the most vulnerable populations. In sum, a collaborative path forward supported by equitable aid practices and a robust, community-driven advocacy framework is essential for realizing transformative change within WASH services across fragile democracies (Arapis & Reitano, 2017; Holzapfel, 2016).

 

7. Reclaiming WASH from the Elites

The sanitation crisis within South Africa is not merely a tale of systemic failure; instead, it serves as a profound call to action for reforming the governance of Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) systems. The revelations surrounding the mismanagement and corruption within the national landscape underscore a pressing imperative: rebuilding trust in WASH services requires a critical reexamination of who holds the power to govern water and sanitation provisions. As long as contracts remain shrouded in secrecy and the voices of communities are marginalized, justice in WASH will remain elusive. Effective reclamation of these systems must hinge on the adoption of vital tools, including legal reform, participatory planning, fiscal transparency, and robust citizen advocacy (Barrington, 2025; Scherer et al., 2021).

7.1 Ensuring WASH Systems Serve People, Not Profits

To ensure that WASH systems serve the public interest rather than profit motives, it is essential to foreground legal reform that promotes accountability and transparency in service delivery. By enacting laws that require open procurement processes and mandate public reporting of outcomes associated with sanitation projects, governments can address the complexities of elite capture and empower local communities (Delvaux & Broeck, 2023; Fuller & Eisenberg, 2016). Furthermore, participatory planning initiatives must involve local populations in decision-making processes surrounding WASH projects, thereby fostering genuine ownership and investment in local sanitation solutions (Madiarsa et al., 2023). Such practices not only ensure that resources are allocated meaningfully but also enhance residents' trust in public institutions.

Fiscal transparency is another critical dimension in the quest to detach WASH from elite interests. Establishing mechanisms that demand rigorous accountability for public expenditures in sanitation can prevent misallocation of resources and ensure that communities receive the services they deserve. Implementing robust monitoring systems, possibly through community-led audits, allows citizens to remain directly informed and engaged in how funds are utilized (Welsh et al., 2024; Hayat et al., 2024). These practices serve dual purposes; they not only deter potential corruption but also encourage citizen participation, engendering a sense of agency and empowerment.

Advocacy remains central to promoting equitable WASH policies, highlighting the critical role of storytelling and media in spotlighting injustices experienced by affected communities. Activism that leverages digital platforms can amplify voices that society often silences; yet acknowledging them helps build a nuanced understanding of the complex relationship between sanitation access, health, and social justice (Botting et al., 2010; Prskalo, 2019). Organizing powerful advocacy campaigns helps to challenge entrenched power dynamics, mobilizing public support for reforms that prioritize human rights over profits.

In addition to advocating for systemic change, it is critical to position the discussion within the broader context of environmental justice and human rights. Reframing WASH as a fundamental human right can catalyze international and local efforts alike to dismantle institutional barriers and facilitate equitable access to these essential services (Truong & Saunders, 2022; Corburn, 2022). Strategies promoting the intersectionality of WASH with other social determinants of health are vital, as they acknowledge the multidimensional nature of inequality faced by marginalized groups (Wutich et al., 2023).

7.2 Setting the Stage for Further Exploration

As the series continues to explore global examples of WASH injustice and resistance, it is imperative to draw lessons from the multifaceted nature of systemic inequalities faced by communities. The ongoing analysis should dissect the interplay of governance, social justice, and citizen engagement across various contexts, aiming to illuminate pathways through which communities can reclaim their rights to safe and dignified sanitation and water services. The power dynamics revealed through the South African sanitation scandal elucidate both the challenges and opportunities present in reenvisioning WASH systems for the future (Enqvist et al., 2020).

The sanitation crisis is a test of the state's commitment to justice, especially for people experiencing poverty. Legal reform, citizen engagement, and fiscal transparency are essential to dismantle elite capture and restore WASH to the people.

Ultimately, the call for action is clear: Leaders and policymakers must reform the power structures that dictate resource distribution and access to essential human needs. The time has arrived for encompassing frameworks that champion inclusivity and accountability in WASH governance. By prioritizing the voices of the marginalized and instituting policies aimed at dismantling corrupt practices, the path toward achieving universal access to safe water and sanitation can be meaningfully advanced, ensuring that WASH systems serve people rather than profits.

 

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