Toilets Without Justice: How India's Sanitation Revolution Fails the Marginalized
People have hailed India's sanitation
revolution as a monumental success. Government campaigns such as Swachh Bharat
Abhiyan have reported millions of toilets constructed nationwide. However, the
reality is more complex. In many Dalit and tribal communities, these toilets
are incomplete, non-functional, or abandoned—a stark contrast to the triumphant
headlines. The article explores how India's sanitation achievements mask
systemic failures rooted in caste-based exclusion, infrastructure gaps, and
flawed governance.
India's
sanitation crisis, exacerbated by deeply entrenched caste divisions, presents a
multifaceted issue woven into the socio-political fabric of the nation. Recent
initiatives, such as the Swachh Bharat Abhiyan (Clean India Mission), have been
lauded for revolutionizing sanitation in India. Government statistics claim that
the construction of millions of toilets aims to eradicate open defecation,
particularly among marginalized communities, including Dalits and other tribal
groups. However, these statistics often obscure a more troubling reality where
many constructed toilets are either abandoned, incomplete, or entirely
non-functional. Serves as a critical reminder that policy outcomes via top-down
approaches can yield illusory successes rather than genuine improvements for
impoverished communities, particularly those subject to caste discrimination
and systemic exclusion due to their socioeconomic status (Exum et al., 2020; Narayan et al., 2021).
Investigations
into the sanitation landscape reveal significant discrepancies between reported
success and lived experiences. For instance, cross-sectional surveys in
Rajasthan indicate that the rates of toilet usage stagnated despite aggressive
campaigns to improve access (Exum et al., 2020). Evidence of a stark divide in
sanitation service availability along caste lines bolsters the analysis, where
Dalit households frequently lack adequate access to functioning sanitation
facilities. Power differentials between Dalits and dominant caste groups
manifest in the distribution of resources, leading to exacerbated health
inequity. The caste system's historical lineage plays a pivotal role; studies
indicate that traditional social hierarchies dictate access to services and
public amenities, which, in the case of sanitation, culminate in systematic
neglect of Dalit communities (Jose et al., 2014).
Caste-based
discrimination continues to permeate interactions, social structures, and
institutions, thereby limiting Dalits' economic and social mobility, which is
critical for accessing sustainable sanitation (Narayan et al., 2021). As
highlighted by Jose et al., the persistent societal norms and practices
surrounding caste reinforce discriminatory conditions that hinder Dalit
engagement in the planning and implementation of sanitation policies (Jose et
al., 2014). Legislation and policy may theoretically aim for inclusivity;
however, the resulting bureaucratic overreach often fails to consider the
nuanced realities on the ground. Therefore, it becomes essential to advocate
for a paradigm shift in sanitation planning that incorporates local
perspectives and participation from marginalized groups, especially those
representing Dalit voices (Mitra et al., 2022).
Despite
these revelations, critics have pointed out the lack of comprehensiveness in
the Swachh Bharat Abhiyan and the disregard for local community dynamics in
sanitation planning. A pertinent critique articulated by Narayan et al.
proposes that the sanitized narratives of success surrounding Mission mask the persistent inequalities that
characterize the sanitation landscape (Narayan et al., 2021). As a practical
consequence, institutional designs continue to reproduce existing social
inequalities. At the same time, top-down initiatives may envision progress, but their execution
often sidesteps the complexities of local governance and the diverse needs of
disenfranchised communities (McConville et al., 2011). It is crucial to
understand that sanitation does not merely represent the provision of toilets
but encompasses broader public health, environmental sustainability, and
socio-political empowerment, particularly for marginalized groups (Seth &
Jain, 2023).
Furthermore,
caste dynamics complicate women's access to sanitation, often resulting in
compounded disadvantages for Dalit women who face both caste and gender
discrimination. Research highlights the ideologies of purity and pollution that
underpin caste-related barriers impacting women's mobility and agency (Chandra,
2021). A significant proportion of Dalit women fulfil household sanitation
needs, necessitating access to functioning toilets. However, due to prevailing
inequalities, many remain without adequate facilities, further entrenching the
cycle of poverty and health inequities in these communities (Malik & Kumar,
2022). The involvement of Dalit women in local governance and sanitation
planning can catalyze more equitable policy responses, leveraging their unique
perspectives to address community needs effectively (Upadhyay, 2023).
Inequality is accentuated further during
crises, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, where sanitation access has become
pivotal to public health discourse (Mondal & Karmakar, 2021). Empirical
evidence indicates that caste disparities manifest in households' ability to
adhere to public health measures, highlighting systemic failures that
disproportionately affect Dalits, who struggle with inadequate sanitation and
limited access to healthcare facilities (Mondal & Karmakar, 2021).
Consequently, public health strategies in India must recognize the intertwined
nature of caste and sanitation to develop targeted interventions that
holistically address the roots of these inequities and facilitate meaningful
changes (Sharma, 2022).
In
an environment where traditional sanitation approaches are inadequate,
addressing the complex dynamics of caste and sanitation requires comprehensive
participation from all segments of society. Collaborative frameworks involving
Dalit communities in decision-making and implementation can promote social
equity principles, ensuring broader access to sanitation facilities, thus
legitimizing their lived experiences. Building awareness about caste
inequalities in sanitation policies not only highlights ongoing injustices but
also galvanizes collective action towards rectifying such disparities (Prasad,
2021).
Thus,
policy recommendations must prioritize the inclusion of Dalit perspectives and
recognize caste as a critical organizing principle affecting public health and
sanitation access (Malik & Kumar, 2022). Transformations in sanitation are
most effective when policies are grounded in the realities faced by
marginalized populations; a perspective shift necessitates a move away from
solely technocratic solutions towards initiatives that emphasize social justice
and community empowerment (Seth & Jain, 2023). Caste must not only be
acknowledged but actively addressed within sanitation discourse and practice to
ensure that marginalized communities can access safe and usable sanitation
facilities, making strides towards genuine equity (Sharma, 2022).
The
broader socio-political context shapes the prevailing sanitation crisis in
India, particularly the mechanisms of caste oppression that dictate access to fundamental
human rights. We must reinforce the right to sanitation for all; it is
essential to reshape the narrative around India's sanitation policies and their
implementation, bearing in mind the complexities of caste and its far-reaching
implications for health equity (Mitra et al., 2022). Engaging with these
intersections will ensure that future sanitation campaigns are not just
top-down endeavours but genuinely reach and improve the lives of those most
affected, particularly in Dalit and tribal populations.
1. The Metrics Lie When Success is Measured in Latrines, Not Lives
1.1 The Numbers Game: Mission Accomplished or Mission Misrepresented?
The
Indian government's sanitation initiatives, including the Swachh Bharat Mission
(SBM), have been celebrated as successful endeavours in addressing the public
health crisis posed by open defecation. Government reports routinely tout the
construction of millions of toilets across the nation, citing impressive
statistics framing these achievements positively. However, independent analyses,
including those conducted by WHO and researchers like Exum et al., reveal that
many of these toilets are not frequently used or are abandoned (Exum et al.,
2020). Disjunction between reported metrics and lived reality underscores a
pervasive "metrics lie," where the mere existence of toilets is
mistaken for effective sanitation practices.
Inadequacies
in the associated infrastructure further exacerbate the phenomenon,
particularly in rural and marginalized areas where water supply and drainage
systems may be absent or severely compromised (Coffey et al., 2020). Without
essential services such as consistent water access, many constructed toilets
serve not as effective solutions but as monuments to misallocated resources
(Sarkar & Bharat, 2021). For instance, Davis et al. highlight that the
sustainability of sanitation systems in resource-limited settings is contingent
upon the long-term effectiveness of both infrastructure and the governance
frameworks overseeing their maintenance (Davis et al., 2019). Thus, the notion
of completion based solely on the number of toilets built fails to account for
their usability, a critical aspect that directly impacts public health and
overall community well-being.
The
conundrum raises the question of how sanitation campaigns define success.
Traditional success indicators, such as the number of latrines constructed,
lack depth when assessing user satisfaction, community engagement, and the
socio-political dynamics that influence sanitation behaviours (Bhan, 2022).
Evaluating success requires a shift from a quantitative to a qualitative
understanding of sanitation, one that recognizes the behavioural and cultural
barriers that persist despite investments in infrastructure (Chakraborty et
al., 2021). Furthermore, as Sharma and Katoch indicate, while economic growth
does enhance sanitation indicators, these improvements are not uniformly
distributed across different social strata, indicating deep-rooted inequalities
in access (Sharma & Katoch, 2022).
1.2 Artifact Evidence: Unused Toilets, Photographed Proof
Documented
artefacts reveal the stark reality of unused and abandoned toilets in various
states, including Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. Photographic evidence
captured by activists and community members serves as a critique of the
official narratives that tout success without acknowledging the lived
experiences of the population (Chakraborty et al., 2021). For example, documentation inherently challenges
governmental claims regarding the efficacy of the SBM, especially in Dalit and
tribal communities, where toilets constructed under the scheme often become
symbols of neglect rather than progress (Roy et al., 2024).
Similarly,
studies conducted by Bayu et al. emphasize that water governance plays a
critical role in determining equitable access to sanitation (Bayu et al.,
2020). The assumption that improving water access would automatically lead to
better sanitation outcomes is fundamentally flawed and underscores a gap in
policy understanding. In many rural communities, failures in infrastructure are
compounded by social inequities that further entrench the impacts of poor
sanitation (Gauri et al., 2020). Thus, the photographs of crumbling facilities
and complaints of abandonment reflect not merely maintenance failures but
highlight systemic injustices deeply embedded in India's socio-political
fabric.
The
disconnect raises questions about how public policy conceptualizes sanitation
access and discusses the importance of shifting social norms related to
sanitation behaviours, which inform how communities perceive the value of
sanitation facilities (Gauri et al., 2020). However, the existence of unused
toilets contradicts the narrative that behaviour change has occurred at the
population level. Consequently, the framing of sanitation success must extend
beyond mere numbers to capture the actual state of sanitation infrastructure
and its accessibility, reinforcing the need for an inclusive discourse that
genuinely reflects the challenges faced by various communities.
Despite
the optimistic projections about India's sanitation landscape, the evidence
suggests that the statistics are misleading. As noted by Exum et al., the lived
realities of marginalized populations often differ starkly from the metrics
reported by the government (Exum et al., 2020). Comprehensive evaluations of
the SBM must include on-the-ground assessments that account for user
experiences and explore the implications of sanitation strategies for those
most affected by social dislocation and infrastructural inadequacies. Such
evaluations provide a blueprint for future interventions and remind us that the
journey toward accurate sanitation access extends far beyond merely
constructing latrines.
In
light of these findings, it becomes evident that there is a pressing need to
redefine what constitutes 'success' in sanitation campaigns. Moving away from
solely quantifiable metrics towards a more holistic approach that considers
usability, availability, and the sociocultural dimensions of sanitation will
provide a clearer picture of progress, or the lack thereof (Davis et al., 2019;
Coffey et al., 2020). By doing so, policymakers can better address the complex
challenges posed by sanitation inequalities, ultimately aligning their goals
with the lived realities of all communities in India.
Future
sanitation policies must integrate environmental sustainability, community
involvement, and behaviour change into their frameworks. As Davis et al.
suggest, clear definitions of sustainability combined with measurable
indicators are essential for assessing progress (Davis et al., 2019). approach
lays the groundwork for actionable strategies that respect local needs and
contexts, paving the way for sanitation solutions that are not only effective
but just.
Overall, we need to reevaluate the metrics regarding sanitation outcomes, and the
findings related to the operational status of these facilities must be made
public. Only then can meaningful progress be measured that transcends the mere
construction of latrines, delving deeper into the impacts on lives,
communities, and the societal transformations needed to foster accurate
sanitation equity.
2. The Metrics Lie – When Success is Measured in Latrines, Not Lives
2.1 The Numbers Game: Mission Accomplished or Mission Misrepresented?
The
Indian government's sanitation initiatives, including the Swachh Bharat Mission
(SBM), have been celebrated as successful endeavours in addressing the public
health crisis posed by open defecation. Government reports routinely tout the
construction of millions of toilets across the nation, citing impressive
statistics framing these achievements positively. However, independent analyses,
including those conducted by WHO and researchers like Exum et al., reveal that
many of these toilets are not frequently used or are abandoned (Exum et al.,
2020). Disjunction between reported metrics and lived reality underscores a
pervasive "metrics lie," where the mere existence of toilets is
mistaken for effective sanitation practices.
Inadequacies
in the associated infrastructure further exacerbate the phenomenon,
particularly in rural and marginalized areas where water supply and drainage
systems may be absent or severely compromised (Coffey et al., 2020). Without
essential services such as consistent water access, many constructed toilets
serve not as effective solutions but as monuments to misallocated resources
(Sarkar & Bharat, 2021). For instance, Davis et al. highlight that the
sustainability of sanitation systems in resource-limited settings is contingent
upon the long-term effectiveness of both infrastructure and the governance
frameworks overseeing their maintenance (Davis et al., 2019). Thus, the notion
of completion based solely on the number of toilets built fails to account for
their usability, a critical aspect that directly impacts public health and
overall community well-being.
The
conundrum prompts us to question how sanitation campaigns define success. Traditional
success indicators, such as the number of latrines constructed, lack depth when
assessing user satisfaction, community engagement, and the socio-political
dynamics that influence sanitation behaviours (Bhan, 2022). Evaluating success
requires a shift from a quantitative to a qualitative understanding of
sanitation, one that recognizes the behavioural and cultural barriers that
persist despite investments in infrastructure (Chakraborty et al., 2021).
Furthermore, as Sharma and Katoch indicate, while economic growth does enhance
sanitation indicators, these improvements are not uniformly distributed across
different social strata, indicating deep-rooted inequalities in access (Sharma
& Katoch, 2022).
2.2 Artifact Evidence: Unused Toilets, Photographed Proof
Documented
artefacts reveal the stark reality of unused and abandoned toilets in various
states, including Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. Photographic evidence
captured by activists and community members serves as a critique of the
official narratives that tout success without acknowledging the lived
experiences of the population (Chakraborty et al., 2021). For example, documentation inherently challenges
governmental claims regarding the efficacy of the SBM, especially in Dalit and
tribal communities, where toilets constructed under the scheme often become
symbols of neglect rather than progress (Roy et al., 2024).
Similarly,
studies conducted by Bayu et al. emphasize that water governance plays a
critical role in determining equitable access to sanitation (Bayu et al.,
2020). The assumption that improving water access would automatically lead to
better sanitation outcomes is fundamentally flawed and underscores a gap in
policy understanding. In many rural communities, failures in infrastructure are
compounded by social inequities that further entrench the impacts of poor
sanitation (Gauri et al., 2020). Thus, the photographs of crumbling facilities
and complaints of abandonment reflect not merely maintenance failures but
highlight systemic injustices deeply embedded in India's socio-political
fabric.
Disconnect also raises questions. How public
policy conceptualizes sanitation access raises essential questions. Gauri et
al. discuss the importance of shifting social norms related to sanitation
behaviours, which inform how communities perceive the value of sanitation
facilities (Gauri et al., 2020). However, the existence of unused toilets
contradicts the narrative that behaviour change has occurred at the population
level. Consequently, the framing of sanitation success must extend beyond mere
numbers to capture the actual state of sanitation infrastructure and its
accessibility, reinforcing the need for an inclusive discourse that genuinely
reflects the challenges faced by various communities.
Despite
the optimistic projections about India's sanitation landscape, the evidence
suggests that the statistics are misleading. As noted by Exum et al., the lived
realities of marginalized populations often differ starkly from the metrics
reported by the government (Exum et al., 2020). Comprehensive evaluations of
the SBM must include on-the-ground assessments that account for user
experiences and explore the implications of sanitation strategies for those
most affected by social dislocation and infrastructural inadequacies. Such
evaluations provide a blueprint for future interventions and remind us that the
journey toward accurate sanitation access extends far beyond merely
constructing latrines.
In
light of these findings, it becomes evident that there is a pressing need to
redefine what constitutes 'success' in sanitation campaigns. Moving away from
solely quantifiable metrics towards a more holistic approach that considers
usability, availability, and the sociocultural dimensions of sanitation will
provide a clearer picture of progress, or the lack thereof (Davis et al., 2019;
Coffey et al., 2020). By doing so, policymakers can better address the complex
challenges posed by sanitation inequalities, ultimately aligning their goals
with the lived realities of all communities in India.
Future
sanitation policies must integrate environmental sustainability, community
involvement, and behaviour change into their frameworks. As Davis et al.
suggest, clear definitions of sustainability combined with measurable
indicators are essential for assessing progress (Davis et al., 2019). approach
lays the groundwork for actionable strategies that respect local needs and
contexts, paving the way for sanitation solutions that are not only effective
but just.
Overall, we need to reevaluate the metrics regarding sanitation outcomes, and the
findings related to the operational status of these facilities must be made
public. Only then can meaningful progress be measured that transcends the mere
construction of latrines, delving deeper into the impacts on lives,
communities, and the societal transformations needed to foster accurate
sanitation equity.
3. Caste and the Sanitation Divide – Who Gets Left Behind?
3.1 The Reality for Dalits and Adivasis: Left Out by Design
India's
sanitation planning process exhibits a critical exclusion of its most
marginalized communities, notably the Dalits and Adivasis. Recent findings
highlight that these groups frequently receive toilets lacking essential
features such as drainage and a reliable water supply, rendering them
impractical and unusable (Prakash et al., 2022). Systemic neglect of sanitation
needs reflects an entrenched caste hierarchy within development frameworks,
which often marginalizes the communities that face the most significant
challenges regarding sanitation access. As noted by Drèze and Sen, the broader
context of social inequality inherently shapes the implementation of such
policies, leading to a perpetuation of marginalization rather than amelioration
(Routray et al., 2017).
The
inadequate provision for Dalit and Adivasi communities extends beyond mere
infrastructural shortcomings; it encompasses a disregard for their specific
cultural practices and contextual realities. Routray et al. emphasize that the
social fabric and cultural dynamics in these communities significantly
constrain their engagement and demand for improved sanitation facilities
(Bhaskar, 2020). Traditional methods of sanitation, including open defecation,
remain culturally entrenched, and existing policies fail to motivate
behavioural change adequately. Instead, they often reflect a top-down approach
that disregards contextual nuances. Thus, while authorities may construct
toilets, their lack of operational functionality represents a broader design
failure within the sanitation narrative, highlighting the stark contrast
between statistical achievements and lived experiences.
The
infrastructural environment surrounding sanitation policies further compounds
the issue of usability. The dearth of drainage systems, often observed in rural
areas inhabited by marginalized groups, not only compromises the functionality
of sanitation facilities but also poses public health risks (Prakash et al.,
2022). The grim state of India's sanitation infrastructure leads to sanitary
behaviour that remains rooted in caste-based discrimination, including the
stigmatization of the very act of sanitation itself. By addressing sanitation
in a vacuum devoid of caste concerns, policy frameworks perpetuate cycles of
exclusion that resonate deeply within India's social landscape.
3.2 Invisibility in Planning: No Seat at the Table
Caste-blind
policymaking serves as a significant barrier to effective sanitation
intervention, leading to elite-centric solutions that ignore the needs of
marginalized groups. Marginalized communities, particularly those from Dalit
and Adivasi backgrounds, seldom find representation in planning bodies tasked
with the formulation of sanitation policies (Wang et al., 2019). The lack of
representation contributes to poorly targeted interventions that neither
respond to nor engage these communities, effectively reinforcing a cycle of
disempowerment.
The
consequences of failing to include marginalized voices in the planning process
are both profound and pervasive. Policies drawn up without equitable input from
affected communities often fail to address their specific sanitation
challenges. Instead, they result in initiatives that cater primarily to the
interests of more affluent and influential segments of society (Routray et al.,
2017). Subsequently, the provisions made may align more closely with the
preferences and practices of elite populations, leaving marginalized
communities to contend with suboptimal solutions or outright exclusions from
key sanitation advancements. Systematically entrenches socioeconomic divisions
and perpetuates cycles of poverty and despair.
Further
complicating the scenario, the pervasive invisibility of marginalized groups
within policymaking contributes to an atmosphere wherein their sanitation needs
become secondary or entirely overlooked (Hanlon & Taylor, 2022). The
resultant policies often reflect a broader disregard for the lived realities of
impoverished communities, leading to interventions that do little to alter
entrenched social inequities. As highlighted in the work by Bhaskar, the
omission of marginalized voices in the various stages of sanitation planning
speaks volumes about the operationalization of caste hierarchies within the
larger governance structures (Bhaskar, 2020).
Moreover,
the externalities of caste-blind policymaking extend beyond the mere lack of
facilities. They culminate in eroded trust between marginalized communities and
governing bodies, further exacerbating tensions and societal disillusionment
(Prakash et al., 2022). The failure to institute accurate representation
ensures that the voices deserving of the most significant attention and
action—the Dalits, Adivasis, and other marginalized groups—remain unheard and
invisible.
3.3 WASH and Intersectionality: Gender, Caste, Disability
The
WASH (Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene) sector is not only fraught with
challenges related to caste. Still, it is also deeply intertwined with gender and
disability, creating a complex web of intersectional barriers. Women, people
with disabilities, and Dalit citizens face compounded obstacles in accessing
sanitation facilities that serve their needs (Kumar et al., 2024). In many
cases, public toilets lack essential facilities for menstrual hygiene
management or are not designed with accessibility in mind, making them unusable
for individuals with disabilities or women during their menstrual cycles
(Timmons et al., 2023).
The
implications of intersectionality highlight a critical oversight in sanitation
programming; without an intersectional lens, sanitation initiatives risk
perpetuating rather than alleviating existing inequalities. Kumar et al. detail
that households belonging to scheduled castes and tribes are less likely to
utilize improved sanitation facilities compared to their counterparts from
forward castes, citing that individuals from these communities were
significantly more likely to have unimproved sanitation services (Kumar et al.,
2024). Disparity sheds light on the compounded marginalization experienced by
these groups, suggesting that sanitation programs must not only be inclusive
but also explicitly address the intricacies of gender and caste, particularly
in relation to menstrual hygiene and accessibility.
Women
in marginalized communities face unique challenges related to sanitation that a
singular demographic focus may not adequately capture. For example, the
oversight of menstrual hygiene facilities in public toilets can lead to
significant health risks and social stigma (Mukhopadhyay, 2015). As a result,
girls and women may resort to unsafe practices that undermine their dignity and
health, thereby reinforcing existing inequalities. The inability to access safe
sanitation is not merely a social challenge; it has far-reaching implications
for public health, education, and socioeconomic advancement, especially for
young girls who face barriers to education due to inadequate facilities during
menstruation (Sahoo et al., 2015).
Thus,
addressing sanitation access through an intersectional framework is essential
for achieving comprehensive health and equality outcomes for all communities.
Failing to incorporate an understanding of how gender, caste, and disability
interact creates a narrative that overlooks the distinct experiences and needs
of marginalized individuals (Bazaz & Akram, 2021). Programs designed to
combat sanitation inequality must be multifaceted and engage directly with the
diverse experiences of these groups to ensure that no one is left behind.
Through the lens of intersectionality, policymakers can aspire to create
inclusive sanitation solutions that genuinely cater to the realities of all
community members.
India's
sanitation crisis directly involves the overlapping issues of caste, gender,
and disability. To drive lasting change, we must employ participatory
frameworks that allow marginalized individuals to shape the decisions impacting
their health and dignity. Addressing the systemic barriers faced by Dalits,
Adivasis, women, and individuals with disabilities is not just an ethical
imperative; it is an essential step towards realizing equity and justice within
India's public health landscape.
4. Infrastructure Without Inclusion – When Design Fails Communities
4.1 No Water, No Use: Toilets Without Infrastructure
The
sanitation challenges in India reveal a significant disconnect between the
construction of toilets and the essential infrastructure required for their practical
use. Many toilets built under initiatives such as the Swachh Bharat Mission are
disconnected from water supply lines and septic systems, rendering them
effectively useless for their intended purpose (Prakash et al., 2022). Dadhich
et al. argue that adequate water supply is a critical determinant for
sanitation usability, often linking it directly to rates of open defecation
practices (Dadhich et al., 2022). Without an integrated focus on local
hydrology, the planning process has frequently led to the imposition of uniform
designs that do not account for the diverse realities of rural and peri-urban
environments across India.
Lack of context-sensitive planning suggests a
gross underestimation of the complexities involved in sanitation infrastructure;
centralized authorities determine toilet construction models without
considering local input or understanding, and the resulting facilities not only
fall short of meeting user needs but also exacerbate existing sanitation
disparities (Prakash et al., 2022). Research by Routray et al. indicates that
reliable access to water within toilet facilities significantly increases
latrine use and safe excreta disposal rates (Routray et al., 2015). Their
findings show that providing toilets with an adequate water supply results in
improved outcomes, and the likelihood of consistent usage improves
dramatically. Conversely, the absence of these water connections perpetuates a
cycle of distrust and negligence surrounding sanitation initiatives, ultimately
resulting in wasted resources and unfulfilled public health goals.
Moreover, failure to integrate essential infrastructure
compounds health risks for local populations. The reliance on unmaintained,
poorly designed toilets often leads to increased health hazards, including the
spread of gastrointestinal diseases, especially among vulnerable populations
(Behera et al., 2021). The systemic neglect of local contexts ultimately
highlights a broader failure in sanitation planning. This oversight disproportionately impacts marginalized communities, including Dalits and
Adivasis, who frequently lack the agency to advocate for their needs (Routray
et al., 2017).
4.2 Behavioral Blame: The Myth of "Unwilling" Users
Government
narratives often shift responsibility for continued open defecation practices
onto communities themselves, characterizing residents as unwilling to adapt or
lacking awareness (Exum et al., 2020). Portrayal obscures the fundamental
design failures and sociocultural barriers that obstruct the effective adoption
of sanitation facilities. The emphasis on 'behavioural change' dismisses the
structural flaws inherent in sanitation systems and the ecological realities
influencing daily practices of defecation (Duflo et al., 2015). Research shows
that deep-rooted cultural attitudes toward sanitation, substantial gaps in
infrastructure, and resource allocation contribute significantly to sanitation
challenges (Behera et al., 2021; Barnard et al., 2013).
Critically
evaluating these assumptions reveals that Sanitation failures should not be
dismissed as merely personal choices or a simple lack of awareness. The
prevailing discourse on unwillingness often functions to divert attention from
deeper systemic issues, including inadequate infrastructure, weak policy
implementation, and sociocultural stigmas associated with sanitation use. Exum
et al. points out that in various surveys, a significant percentage of
households with latrines still practised open defecation not out of choice but
due to poorly designed facilities that lacked the necessary infrastructure to
facilitate their use (Exum et al., 2020). The phenomenon underscores a misalignment
between official narratives and the realities faced by communities on the
ground.
Additionally,
narratives framing community reluctance emphasize individual blame rather than
recognizing the need for comprehensive systems redesign. Manual interventions
that aim to foster behaviour change must be rooted in an understanding of the
physical and cultural landscapes that inform sanitation practices. Without
addressing the systemic barriers and infrastructure shortcomings, rhetoric that
condemns communities for failing to adopt sanitation improvements contributes
to a cycle of shame and neglect rather than constructive engagement (Chunga et
al., 2016).
Ultimately,
an effective strategy for improving sanitation must combine
infrastructural investment, community engagement, and sensitive awareness of
local practices and beliefs. Recognizing that behaviour change cannot occur in
a vacuum is crucial for developing strategies that foster genuine adoption of
sanitation facilities (Dagaga & Geleta, 2022).
4.3 Where Caste Meets Infrastructure: Manual Scavenging Today
Despite
the formal prohibition of manual scavenging in India, degrading practice persists, mainly due to
inadequate sanitation infrastructure that forces marginalized individuals,
primarily Dalits, to continue engaging in such hazardous work (Wankhede, 2021; Mala et al., 2022). The historical roots of manual scavenging lie within the
caste system, which has relegated specific communities to perform tasks
considered "unclean" or "polluting." With a lack of
accessible toilets and functioning sanitation systems, many Dalits are
compelled to manually clean non-flush toilets, public latrines, and septic
systems without proper safety gear or sanitation practices (Mala et al., 2022).
The
ongoing existence of manual scavenging underscores the profound failures
inherent in the sanitation infrastructure. As Wankhede argues, the continued
practice of manual scavenging not only perpetuates caste discrimination but
poses severe health risks to individuals subjected to such conditions,
violating their fundamental rights and dignity (Wankhede, 2021). Strategies to
eliminate this practice must focus not only on enforcing laws but also on comprehensive infrastructure development that ensures all communities have
access to hygienic toilets that do not require manual cleaning.
Furthermore,
the socioeconomic and regulatory frameworks governing sanitation continue to
inadequately address the needs of the lowest caste communities inadequately,
thereby normalizing practices that should long have been abolished (Wankhede,
2021). Efforts toward sanitation modernization must include the perspectives of
marginalized communities to break the chains of discrimination and exclusion
that allow manual scavenging to persist. Activists have emphasized the
importance of shifting the focus from mere infrastructure to inclusive policies
that respect individual dignity, ensuring that sanitation access is equitable
and usable for all (Mala et al., 2022).
The
continuous loop of poor sanitation infrastructure fueling manual scavenging
exemplifies how systemic inequalities intersect in the context of public
health. Addressing these intertwined issues necessitates a robust, rights-based
approach to sanitation that acknowledges and acts upon the structural barriers
perpetuating both caste discrimination and inadequate sanitation systems. Only
through this lens can policy effectively work toward eliminating practices like
manual scavenging while promoting access to decent sanitation for all
individuals in India.
In
conclusion, successful sanitation interventions must include comprehensive
infrastructural improvements, listening to community needs, and respect for the
dignity of all individuals involved in sanitation work. By focusing on
ingrained sociocultural attitudes, adequate infrastructure, and policies that
prioritize equity, it is possible to advance toward a genuinely inclusive
sanitation landscape in India.
5. Myth vs. Reality – The Politics of WASH Success
5.1 State vs. Survey: Discrepancies in Data Reporting
In the context of Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) initiatives in
India, there are significant discrepancies between official government data and
independent assessments conducted by NGOs and researchers. While state
authorities often present an optimistic portrayal of sanitation
success—claiming substantial progress in toilet construction and
usage—independent audits reveal a stark contrast. These audits have shown that
many constructed toilets remain unused due to a lack of basic functionality,
including insufficient access to water supply and inadequate maintenance, which
disproportionately affects marginalized communities such as Dalit and Adivasi
groups.
These findings imply that official reports often overstate actual
sanitation outcomes, obscuring the reality faced by low-income communities.
Studies indicate that the impact of improved housing and sanitation
infrastructure on health outcomes is usually tenuous if not supported by adequate
and sustainable maintenance systems. Bailie et al. (2011) suggest that a deeper understanding of
the complexities in the WASH infrastructure, from initial construction to
operationality, is necessary.
Moreover, these discrepancies reflect systemic neglect of marginalized
populations. Many of these communities find themselves overlooked in sanitation
narratives, as state agencies frequently fail to collect disaggregated data
that captures their lived experiences. Consequently, WASH programs must adopt
more inclusive and transparent data collection practices, challenging
prevailing narratives that prioritize political expediency over real human
needs (Fröhlich et al., 2021).
5.2 Media & Messaging: How the Narrative is Controlled
Mass media campaigns in India significantly shape public perception of
WASH initiatives. They often celebrate political achievements while suppressing
grassroots narratives that reflect the actual state of sanitation on the
ground. The storytelling in these campaigns commonly constructs a sanitized
image of success that downplays the challenges faced by marginalized
communities. By focusing on political leaders' speeches and promotional events,
media narratives divert attention from systemic failures and ongoing
inequities.
Such controlled narratives impoverish the discourse surrounding
sanitation, obscuring essential voices that we should include in the
conversation about WASH. Research indicates that grassroots community
organizing is crucial in establishing effective intervention models, offering
insights that often conflict with top-down narratives promoted by policymakers
(Wong & Guggenheim, 2018). The contrast between official discourse and
grassroots experiences emphasizes the need for media outlets to adopt a broader
perspective that incorporates the views of those directly impacted by
sanitation policies.
Moreover, media narratives not only portray successes but also influence
societal expectations and accountability. When they overlook more profound
systemic inequalities in the WASH sector, they contribute to a weakened
accountability culture, which perpetuates cycles of negligence and alienation,
leaving marginalized voices unheard and delaying necessary reforms.
For practical WASH discourse to flourish, media platforms must integrate
narratives centring on marginalized experiences, fostering a thorough
understanding of the issues at hand. Two key aspects require attention: the
need for diverse storytelling that encompasses multiple perspectives and the
creation of platforms that empower community voices to share their experiences
(Goldstein et al., 2023). A paradigm shift in media representation can achieve significant changes in public policy and community
empowerment,
leading to more inclusive sanitation solutions.
5.3 Comparative Case: Nepal's Inclusive Sanitation Councils
In contrast, Nepal provides a compelling example of inclusive governance
through its decentralized sanitation councils, which actively include
representatives from Dalit and Indigenous communities in WASH policymaking
processes. The model demonstrates how representation can lead to the
development of equitable and culturally relevant sanitation services (Nawaz et
al., 2024). By giving marginalized voices a formal role in decision-making,
these councils ensure that policies better reflect the needs of local populations.
The effectiveness of Nepal's approach highlights the importance of
collaboration and community engagement in creating sanitation strategies that
serve everyone. Participatory governance frameworks not only enhance the
inclusiveness of decision-making but also improve service delivery and
community buy-in for sanitation initiatives (Schnittfinke et al., 2024). Such
collaborative efforts empower marginalized groups, allowing their unique
perspectives to shape programmatic goals and outcomes.
Furthermore, the successes of Nepal's sanitation councils illustrate how
local knowledge and experiences can lead to better-targeted interventions. By
engaging diverse community members in governance, these councils address
critical issues related to culture, accessibility, and infrastructure
maintenance, promoting a sense of ownership among community members. Ownership
is vital for sustaining usage and care for sanitation facilities—outcomes that
have proven elusive for rigid, top-down sanitation programs.
The Nepalese model offers a potential pathway for India to
enhance its own WASH initiatives. By prioritizing inclusive governance
structures that elevate marginalized voices in decision-making processes, the
likelihood of meaningful reform and equitable service delivery can
substantially increase. However, a shift away from traditional approaches is required, urging policymakers
to dismantle participation barriers within the sanitation sector (Agitiya &
Tivany, 2023).
In conclusion, the political narratives surrounding WASH in India
necessitate a fundamental reassessment grounded in transparency, equity, and
inclusiveness. Recognizing discrepancies between state and survey data,
diversifying media narratives, and learning from successful models of
representation in other countries can collectively drive significant
advancements in India's sanitation landscape. Ensuring that marginalized
communities are heard and represented can pave the way for effective,
equitable, and culturally relevant sanitation services that meet the needs of
all.
6. From Exclusion to Empowerment – A Roadmap for Inclusive WASH
6.1 Caste Equity Audits: Making Exclusion Visible
Caste equity audits serve as crucial instruments for evaluating access
to sanitation infrastructure, the quality of services, and the inclusivity of
planning processes across different caste groups. These audits are essential
for uncovering hidden biases in the implementation of water, sanitation, and
hygiene (WASH) programs, as they can elucidate disparities that governmental
data might overlook (Kekana et al., 2023). Conducting such audits not only
highlights exclusions but also promotes the need for corrective actions,
ensuring that marginalized communities—especially Dalits and Adivasis—access
the same quality of sanitation services as their more privileged counterparts.
Kekana et al. discuss how measures of environmental justice must include
attention to disparities in access to sanitation across various demographics
(Kekana et al., 2023). By using caste equity audits, stakeholders can
systematically analyze and address issues that might perpetuate systemic
inequities. These audits can bring forth valuable insights into the planning
and execution of sanitation projects, fostering conversations around
accountability and redress among decision-makers. The integration of these
audits into standard practice has the potential to transform WASH policies,
making them more equitable and targeted.
Moreover, the adoption of caste equity audits educates communities about
their rights and entitlements within the framework of sanitation. Through
participatory engagement, marginalized groups can voice their concerns and
aspirations, leading to a more inclusive decision-making process. These audits
empower local communities by instilling a sense of ownership and agency over
the WASH facilities that directly impact their lives, fostering a culture of
accountability among service providers (Ataíde & Borja, 2017).
6.2 Based Organizations: Drivers of Inclusive WASH
Community-based organizations (CBOs) are pivotal in advancing inclusive
WASH interventions by leveraging local knowledge, building trust, and nurturing
community ownership of sanitation systems. Organizations such as Gram Vikas and
WaterAid India have demonstrated effective models of community engagement,
actively involving residents in the design, implementation, and management of
sanitation facilities (Dhungana et al., 2016). The embedded local expertise of
these organizations allows them to tailor solutions to the unique needs and
practices of diverse communities, thereby enhancing both adoption and
sustainability rates.
The success of CBO-led initiatives is evident in the higher acceptance
of sanitation facilities among local populations. Ballard et al. assert that
grassroots involvement catalyzes significant improvements in both the quality
of sanitation services and the overall health outcomes of communities (Ballard
et al., 2022). By training community members and enabling them to manage local
sanitation systems, these organizations foster resilience and encourage
sustainable practices.
Furthermore, the participatory approach adopted by these CBOs not only
empowers marginalized groups but also integrates their perspectives into
broader policy discussions. By amplifying the voices of those affected by
sanitation inequities, CBOs ensure that the development of WASH policies is
informed by a diverse range of experiences, creating more responsive and adequate
sanitation systems (Welsh et al., 2024). Their work drives a paradigm shift in
how sanitation approaches are made, moving from a top-down model to one that
collaborates and empowers.
6.3 Education as Empowerment: Hygiene and Social Mobility
Education serves as a fundamental strategy for empowering marginalized
populations, particularly women and youth, in their pursuit of improved
sanitation and hygiene practices. Incorporating WASH education into school
curricula not only enhances awareness of health and hygiene but also equips
young individuals with the skills and knowledge necessary to advocate for their
needs (Shafique et al., 2018). There is a growing consensus that effective
sanitation education can challenge discriminatory norms, dismantling barriers
that inhibit access to hygiene services.
Engaging schools and community institutions in hygiene education can
foster social mobility by providing marginalized groups, particularly women,
with the tools to navigate and challenge oppressive social structures. Research
by Dhungana et al. highlights that interventions designed to raise health
awareness and promote practice improvements are more effective when they are
compatible with the cultural and socioeconomic contexts of targeted communities
(Dhungana et al., 2016). By empowering individuals through education, we foster
a generation equipped to advocate for systemic change and to implement
sustainable hygiene practices.
Moreover, education's role in sanitation extends beyond individual
knowledge; it incubates community leaders and health advocates who can
influence broader societal change. By enhancing their agency, women and youth
can challenge prevailing stigmas surrounding sanitation work and motivate a
shift toward more equitable practices within their communities. Social
empowerment through education not only yields health benefits—improved hygiene
practices can lead to better community health outcomes—but also lays the
groundwork for long-lasting social reform (Shafique et al., 2018).
6.4 Integrated Policy: Aligning WASH with Social Justice
Advancing inclusive WASH solutions necessitates a holistic approach that
integrates sanitation into broader social justice frameworks, encompassing land
rights, housing, and anti-discrimination efforts. Isolating WASH initiatives
from more extensive socioeconomic policies undermines their potential for
impact and perpetuates cycles of exclusion (Roelen & Rodriguez, 2022). Adequate
sanitation cannot exist in a vacuum; it must align with policies that address
the underlying determinants of health and well-being for marginalized
communities.
The concept of social justice implies that every citizen should have
equal access to essential services, and principles should fundamentally guide
WASH policy development. Addressing disparities in sanitation involves not only
infrastructural improvements but also rectifying social injustices that have
persisted throughout history. By adopting integrated policy frameworks,
stakeholders can ensure a coherent development strategy that uplifts the most
vulnerable and disempowered (Pan et al., 2016).
Moreover, such an integrated approach allows for effective resource
allocation and coordination among various sectors. As highlighted by Roelen and
Rodriguez, aligning WASH with social protection mechanisms can lift
individuals from poverty while improving health outcomes—an essential step
toward achieving sustainable development goals (Roelen & Rodriguez, 2022).
The integration of sanitation services into social justice initiatives
represents a commitment to upholding the dignity and rights of all individuals.
In summary, creating an inclusive WASH landscape in India hinges on the
recognition of systemic inequalities and the implementation of strategies
designed to promote social justice. Caste equity audits, community-based
organizations, education as empowerment, and integrated policies all play
pivotal roles in steering change towards the realization of equitable
sanitation for all. By prioritizing the amplification of marginalized voices
and fostering meaningful participation, India can move from exclusion to
empowerment, ultimately achieving a more just and effective WASH framework.
7. Conclusion: Toilets Are Not Enough
India's sanitation crisis is not merely an infrastructure failure; it is
fundamentally a justice issue. The mere construction of toilets, often
celebrated by government reports, does not equate to meaningful improvements in
public health or social equity. An examination of the sanitation landscape
reveals that constructing toilets without addressing the deeper issues of
caste, access, and representation perpetuates exclusion and inequality Cameron
et al., 2019).
Sustainable solutions demand a comprehensive approach that emphasizes
structural reforms. Dignity, equity, and active
participation must be at the centre of WASH policy formulation. Shift signifies a
commitment to unravelling long-standing injustices entrenched in India's caste
system, thereby ensuring that all community members have access to clean and
hygienic sanitation regardless of their social standing.
7.1 Needed Actions:
Conduct caste and equity audits on all WASH programs: Implementing
regular audits can reveal disparities in sanitation access and service quality
among different caste groups. Such audits aim to identify areas for
improvement and promote accountability, ensuring that marginalized communities
receive effective service.
Mandate inclusive planning that centres marginalized voices: The sanitation planning process must actively involve the perspectives of those
most affected by inadequate sanitation services, particularly Dalits and
Adivasis. It involves integrating community feedback into the design,
implementation, and management of sanitation projects.
Integrate WASH policy with land rights, education, and
anti-discrimination laws: It is vital to recognize that WASH intertwines with
broader issues of social justice. Integrating sanitation initiatives with
legislation on land rights and anti-discrimination will provide a more holistic
approach to addressing the systemic barriers that many marginalized communities
face.
Fund community-led sanitation initiatives: Empowering communities
through funding for locally-led sanitation projects can afford them ownership and
control over sanitation solutions. The grassroots approach fosters
responsibility and sustainability within communities that often feel neglected
by top-down solutions.
Reform data practices to reflect lived realities, not just numeric goals: Data collection surrounding sanitation must reflect the complexities of lived experiences rather than solely relying on quantitative metrics. Integrating qualitative insights will help capture the actual state of sanitation and facilitate informed policy development.
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