WASH is not just about water or toilets—it’s about power, dignity, and survival. Behind every broken pipe and missing toilet is a deeper story of injustice, inequality, and silent suffering. Over 3 billion people are still denied their basic human right to clean water and sanitation. This isn’t a technical glitch—it’s a global failure. It’s time we see WASH for what it truly is: a fight for justice.
1. WASH Is Not Just a Sector, It Is a Struggle for
Justice
Water, sanitation, and hygiene
(WASH) are indispensable components that transcend technical amenities; they
embody a fundamental struggle for justice, dignity, and health. The framing of
WASH as a mere sector often obscures its role as a critical intersection of
political, economic, and ethical dimensions that shape the lives of billions.
The dire global statistics underscore the necessity of reframing—over 2 billion
people lack access to safe drinking water, while 3.6 billion are without
adequate sanitation services. These figures reflect systemic policy failures
and inequities rather than mere accidents of geography or demographics, as pointed
out in various studies (Suryani et al., 2023; Behnke et al., 2018).
The implications of inadequate
WASH services are profound; they are linked to higher rates of infectious
diseases, increased poverty, and social exclusion. A systematic review
highlights that subpar hygiene practices and inadequate sanitation in humanitarian
settings lead to elevated health risks, particularly in refugee camps (Ramesh
et al., 2015; Shannon et al., 2019). Systemic neglect must be met with a robust
global response, prioritizing WASH within the broader framework of sustainable
development goals (SDGs), precisely Goal 6, which emphasizes universal access
to WASH (Suryani et al., 2023; Behnke et al., 2018).
The current article serves as a
clarion call, not just to acknowledge the importance of WASH but to explore how
it serves as a frontline defence against disease and exclusion. Elite interests
and political manoeuvres often attempt to capture and commodify WASH systems,
leading to discrimination and inequitable service delivery (Chirgwin et al.,
2021; Al-Hamawi et al., 2025). Addressing WASH issues is, therefore, not merely
a humanitarian imperative; it is a matter of justice, deserving of
prioritization in global development agendas.
One compelling illustration of
these dynamics can be observed in the challenges faced by refugees,
particularly those in camps with limited resources. A scoping review on
infectious disease prevention in crisis-affected settings highlights that
inadequacies in WASH services correspond with increased disease prevalence,
such as cholera in refugee camps (Polonsky et al., 2021). Furthermore,
systematic reviews indicate that improving sanitation infrastructure leads
directly to better health outcomes, thereby underscoring WASH's role as a
catalyst for social transformation (Ramesh et al., 2015; Taylor et al., 2015).
In uncovering the hidden power
dynamics within WASH, it becomes evident that issues surrounding access and
equity are not merely technical problems but are deeply intertwined with
governance, resource allocation, and societal values. The urgency of the situation
demands robust advocacy for reform, inclusive participation in decision-making,
and a determination to eradicate the barriers faced by displaced and
marginalized populations (Altare et al., 2019); (Saifee et al., 2021;
Consequently, public health
narratives must begin to prioritize WASH as foundational to health equity and
social justice. As evident in research conducted in refugee camps, successful
WASH interventions typically involve not only infrastructural improvements but
also community engagement and education (Mahamud et al., 2011; Shapna et al.,
2023). Such participatory approaches can foster a sense of ownership among
beneficiaries, leading to sustainable improvements in hygiene behaviours and
overall health outcomes.
Moreover, the COVID-19 pandemic
has amplified the vulnerabilities faced by those living in concentrated
settings, such as refugee camps, highlighting the interconnected nature of
health and WASH services. Studies indicate that during the pandemic, inadequate
WASH practices exacerbated the spread of the virus among vulnerable populations
(Saifee et al., 2021; Bohnet & Rüegger, 2021). Hence, integrating WASH
standards into emergency response strategies has become critical (Kabir et al.,
2020).
Looking forward, the implications
are clear: advancing the WASH agenda requires a comprehensive understanding of
its relevance within the broader global discourse on human rights and social
equity. Involves a commitment not only to increasing funding for WASH
initiatives but also to ensuring that these efforts are inclusive and
responsive to the needs of the most marginalized (Suryani et al., 2023;
Hossain, 2021; Stout et al., 2025). Only through such an approach can we truly
harness the power of WASH to facilitate health and uphold the dignity of the
excluded.
2. What
Is WASH? An Overview of Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene
Water, sanitation, and hygiene
(WASH) represent an integrated approach essential for promoting public health,
enhancing quality of life, and achieving sustainable development. Each
component—water, sanitation, and hygiene—plays a significant role in preventing
disease transmission and fostering social equity. Specifically, access to safe
and reliable drinking water is fundamental to human survival and well-being,
impacting various dimensions of life, including physical health, economic
productivity, and educational advancement (Suryani et al., 2023; Behnke et al.,
2018).
2.1 Water: The Essence of Life
Water serves as a critical
resource for daily life, underpinning health and hygiene. The provision of safe
drinking water is necessary to avert waterborne diseases, which remain
prevalent in regions with inadequate water infrastructure. According to the World
Health Organization (WHO), approximately 2 billion people still lack access to
safely managed drinking water services (Ramesh et al., 2015). Access to clean
water not only reduces the incidence of disease but also facilitates improved
nutrition and hydration, which are vital for overall health. Moreover, evidence
illustrates that safe water sources significantly decrease the incidence of
diarrhoea and other gastrointestinal illnesses (Shannon et al., 2019).
Therefore, effective water management policies are pivotal to ensuring health
equity and resilience, particularly in marginalized communities.
2.2 Sanitation: A Pillar of Public Health
Sanitation, defined as the safe
management of human waste through the use of toilets and proper waste disposal
systems, is equally crucial. Inadequate sanitation leads to significant public
health challenges, including the spread of infectious diseases. The United
Nations reports that without proper sanitation facilities, around 3.6 billion
individuals lack access, leading to adverse health impacts and social
consequences such as exclusion from educational and economic opportunities
(Chirgwin et al., 2021). Furthermore, improved sanitation practices contribute
to reducing mortality rates, particularly among children under five, as they
are particularly vulnerable to diseases related to poor sanitation (Al-Hamawi
et al., 2025; Polonsky et al., 2021). Comprehensive sanitation systems,
therefore, play a critical role in mitigating the public health burden
associated with unsafe waste disposal.
2.3 Hygiene: Behavioral Practices for Health
Hygiene encompasses practices
that promote health and prevent disease transmission, including handwashing,
menstrual hygiene management, and safe food handling. Handwashing with soap is
one of the most effective measures for preventing infectious diseases, as it
significantly reduces the transmission of pathogens responsible for illnesses
such as diarrhoea and respiratory infections (Taylor et al., 2015). Studies
show that proper handwashing at critical times can reduce the incidence of
diarrhoea by up to 30% and respiratory infections by approximately 20% (Altare
et al., 2019). In contexts where access to clean water is constrained,
promoting effective hygiene behaviours becomes imperative for improving public
health outcomes, especially during health crises such as pandemics, where the
risk of disease transmission is heightened (Saifee et al., 2021).
2.4 Interconnectedness of WASH Components
The interdependence of water,
sanitation, and hygiene highlights that addressing these components
individually is insufficient; they must be integrated for optimal health
impact. For example, the efficacy of sanitation systems is heavily reliant on
the availability of safe water for hygiene practices such as handwashing
(Mahamud et al., 2011). Evidence indicates that combined WASH interventions are
more successful in reducing disease incidence than isolated efforts (Shapna et
al., 2023; Bohnet & Rüegger, 2021). The synergistic effect of WASH
initiatives not only improves health outcomes but also empowers communities,
particularly women and girls, who often bear the brunt of inadequate WASH
facilities due to the associated health risks and societal stigmas concerning
hygiene (Kabir et al., 2020).
Moreover, economic analyses
suggest that improved WASH facilities lead to substantial economic benefits by
reducing healthcare costs, increasing productivity, and enhancing educational
opportunities. For instance, investments in WASH infrastructure have been shown
to yield a return of $4.3 for every dollar spent due to decreased healthcare
costs and increased economic productivity (Hossain, 2021). Thus, prioritizing
WASH is not only a moral imperative but also a strategic investment for
sustainable development.
2.5 Challenges and the Path Forward
Despite WASH's recognized importance, considerable challenges remain in achieving universal access. These
challenges include inadequate governance, resource allocation, and ongoing
disparities in access, particularly in low-income and marginalized communities.
Additionally, ongoing crises such as climate change and pandemics exacerbate
existing vulnerabilities, highlighting the urgency for resilient and responsive
WASH policies (Stout et al., 2025).
To address these challenges, it
is critical to advocate for integrated WASH policies that promote equitable
access and participation from affected communities. Engaging stakeholders and
fostering collaboration among governments, NGOs, and the private sector can
help overcome barriers and implement effective WASH programs that reflect local
realities (Pirc et al., 2016).
In conclusion, WASH is a
multifaceted sector that encapsulates the essence of public health, equity, and
sustainable development. By recognizing the interconnectedness of its
components—water, sanitation, and hygiene—global efforts can be mobilized to enhance
health outcomes, foster social inclusion, and drive economic growth. To achieve
these goals, collective action and strong political commitment are essential in
elevating WASH within the global development agenda.
3. Why
Is WASH Urgent Now?
The urgency surrounding Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) issues has reached a critical juncture, necessitating immediate attention and action from global leaders, policymakers, and communities alike. Every day, approximately 700 children succumb to preventable diseases due to unsafe water and poor sanitation conditions (Suryani et al., 2023). Staggering statistic serves as a poignant reminder of the dire consequences of neglecting WASH infrastructures and highlight the need for prioritization in both development agendas and humanitarian responses.
3.1 Health Implications of WASH Deficits
The persistence of diseases such
as cholera and typhoid underscores the direct health implications of inadequate
WASH facilities, particularly in marginalized communities where the burden is
disproportionately felt (Behnke et al., 2018; Ramesh et al., 2015).
Cholera—notably endemic in areas with compromised sanitation—claims thousands
of lives annually, predominantly affecting the most vulnerable populations,
including children under five (Shannon et al., 2019). Evidence indicates that
cholera bacteria thrive where cleanliness and safe drinking water are lacking,
further illustrating the immediate need for robust WASH interventions (Chirgwin
et al., 2021). Similarly, typhoid fever remains a recurrent threat, emphasizing
that without fundamental improvements in water quality and sanitation systems,
outbreaks are unavoidable and devastating (Al-Hamawi et al., 2025).
3.2 Climate Change and WASH Vulnerability
Furthermore, climate change has
intensified challenges related to water scarcity, exacerbating sanitation
breakdowns globally. Increasing instances of extreme weather events, such as
floods and droughts, disrupt essential water supplies and sanitation services
(Polonsky et al., 2021; Taylor et al., 2015). Environmental stress has a
remarkable impact on communities in low- and middle-income countries.
3.3 Social Inequities Magnified by WASH
Deficiencies
The inequities inherent in WASH
access have further implications, reflecting and magnifying broader social
injustices within society. Marginalized groups, including women, children, and
refugees, are disproportionately affected by inadequate WASH services, which
often lead to reduced educational opportunities, increased health risks, and
social exclusion (Altare et al., 2019; Saifee et al., 2021). For instance, the
presence of functional school sanitation facilities significantly correlates
with female students' attendance and dropout rates during
menstruation, highlighting gender-specific barriers exacerbated by WASH deficits
(Mahamud et al., 2011). Therefore, addressing WASH inequities is not only a
matter of health but also a fundamental human rights issue, intertwining with
broader social justice initiatives (Shapna et al., 2023).
Despite the pressing urgency to
address WASH challenges, these issues remain underfunded and under-prioritized
within national and international frameworks. The global investment gap in WASH
remains substantial, with rising costs and economic downturns further
complicating funding efforts (Bohnet & Rüegger, 2021). National development
strategies must incorporate WASH priorities as central components of health
systems, recognizing that comprehensive WASH initiatives will also yield
economic and educational returns, thus catalyzing broader growth (Kabir et al.,
2020).
3.4 Call to Action for WASH Integration
To combat these escalating
challenges, it is essential to centre WASH within national development
strategies and constitutional law. Integration necessitates a commitment to
allocate resources and collaborate across multiple sectors—government, civil
society, and private stakeholders (Hossain, 2021). Engaging communities in
participatory WASH initiatives can foster ownership and responsibility for
local improvements, ensuring that interventions are contextually relevant and
sustainable (Stout et al., 2025).
Public dialogue and discourse
surrounding WASH must also be amplified. By raising awareness about the
critical impacts of inadequate water, sanitation, and hygiene access,
collective action can be mobilized to advocate for necessary reforms (Pirc et
al., 2016). Initiatives can be structured to transparently address financial
and governance issues, ensuring that WASH is no longer relegated to the
background of development agendas but prioritized as a universal right (Chen et
al., 2024).
3.5 A
Collective Responsibility
In conclusion, the imperative to
address WASH concerns has never been more urgent. The convergence of health
crises, environmental challenges, and social inequities requires a cohesive
response that prioritizes water, sanitation, and hygiene as integral to public
health and human development. Addressing these challenges is not merely a duty
of affected communities but a global responsibility to uplift the most
vulnerable and create a healthier, more equitable world for all.
4. WASH
Is More Than Infrastructure—It is a System
Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene
(WASH) is often perceived mainly as a matter of infrastructure, emphasizing the
importance of physical components like pipes, pumps, toilets, and treatment
plants. However, a comprehensive understanding of WASH reveals that successful
interventions go beyond these tangible aspects, encompassing behavioural
change, governance structures, and social equity (Tseole et al., 2022) (Neto,
2018). Recognizing WASH as a multifaceted system is critical for developing
sustainable solutions that genuinely enhance public health and welfare.
4.1 Integrated WASH Systems: A Comprehensive
Approach
The effectiveness of WASH systems
necessitates an integrated approach that combines hardware, such as
infrastructure, with software components, including community engagement and
behaviour change strategies. Sustainable access to WASH services means ensuring
that systems are long-term, affordable, and resilient, adaptable to both
environmental and societal changes (Ahmed et al., 2021); (Dreibelbis et al.,
2013). Such sustainable systems are vital in the face of escalating climate
challenges and shifting demographics that demand innovative approaches to water
and sanitation provision.
One key aspect of achieving
sustainable WASH is inclusive design. Facilities must cater to the needs of
various demographics, including women, girls, individuals with disabilities,
and economically disadvantaged groups. For instance, designing latrines that
are accessible to all can dramatically improve the utilization rates of
sanitation facilities (Wu & Wang, 2010). Studies indicate that inclusive
WASH policies not only provide equitable access but also enhance community
resilience and engagement, contributing to better long-term outcomes (Tseole et
al., 2022).
Another crucial component of an
effective WASH system is local ownership, which fosters community-driven
planning and accountability. Community involvement not only empowers
individuals but also engenders a sense of responsibility towards maintaining
the infrastructure and adhering to hygienic practices (Coffeng et al., 2018;
Dalisay et al., 2024). Local ownership can be achieved through participatory
approaches that engage communities in the decision-making process, resulting in
solutions that are both contextually relevant and culturally sensitive.
Moreover, policy integration
across sectors is fundamental for fostering an effective WASH system. WASH
considerations should permeate various ministries, from health to urban
planning, to ensure coherent strategies that align with national and local development
plans (Nyambe & Yamauchi, 2021). Integration can facilitate resource
allocation, improve service delivery, and enhance the overall efficiency of
health and education interventions tied to WASH improvements (Humphrey et al.,
2019).
For instance, schools equipped
with robust WASH facilities not only contribute to better health outcomes but
also enhance children's educational experiences and performance. Research shows
that improved WASH conditions in schools correlate with higher attendance and
reduced dropout rates, particularly among girls during menstruation (Lehmann,
2010; Morgan et al., 2017). Thus, integrating WASH policies into educational
frameworks can yield significant benefits in terms of student engagement and
learning outcomes.
4.2 Behaviour Change: The Soft Side of WASH
Behaviour change is another vital
component of a successful WASH system. It is not enough to provide hardware if
individuals do not adapt their practices to utilize the facilities effectively
(Dreibelbis et al., 2013). Initiatives that promote handwashing, safe food
handling, and menstrual hygiene management are essential for maximizing the
health impact of WASH interventions. The Integrated Behavioral Model for Water,
Sanitation, and Hygiene (IBM-WASH) emphasizes understanding contextual factors
that mitigate or enable these behaviours (Dreibelbis et al., 2013).
Education campaigns must be
sensitive to local cultures and social norms, enhancing participation and
compliance (Abendroth & Jensen, 2003). For example, training community
leaders and engaging local advocates can heighten awareness and willingness to
adopt new sanitation practices (Momberg et al., 2020). Evidence suggests that
community-led approaches, including social marketing techniques, can
effectively shift attitudes and behaviours surrounding hygiene and sanitation
(Momberg et al., 2020).
4.3 Governance: The Framework for Effective
Implementation
Effective governance structures
also play a crucial role in the implementation and sustainability of WASH
projects. Policies must be underpinned by strong regulatory frameworks that
ensure equitable access and maintain service quality (Setyono et al., 2018).
Governance extends beyond policy formulation; it encompasses the monitoring and
evaluation of WASH services to ensure compliance and address emerging
challenges. Inefficient governance can result in stalled progress and
inequitable service distribution, particularly in low-income regions where the
need is greatest (Brouwer et al., 2022).
The establishment of
multi-sectoral partnerships can enhance WASH's governance landscape.
Collaborative efforts among governmental entities, non-governmental
organizations, and private sector partners can stimulate innovation and
resource sharing. Such partnerships can result in comprehensive WASH programs
that address not just infrastructural needs but also the underlying socioeconomic
factors that contribute to inadequate service provision (Humphrey et al.,
2019).
4.4 Engineering and Empowerment in WASH
In conclusion, WASH is far more
than just the infrastructure; it is an intricate system that weaves together
physical, behavioural, and governance aspects to deliver sustainable, equitable
services. Achieving WASH success hinges on recognizing the necessity of
sustainable access, inclusive design, local ownership, and policy integration.
With these elements in mind, it becomes evident that investments in WASH are
not merely expenditures on infrastructure but strategic interventions that
promote health, dignity, and empowerment across communities.
5. The
Academic Foundations: A Science-Driven Sector of WASH
Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene
(WASH) is not merely a sector characterized by infrastructure; it is a
multidimensional domain that intersects multiple disciplines, making it a
science-driven sector critical to public health and societal well-being. Understanding
the complex nature of WASH requires examining its foundations in public health,
engineering, environmental science, social sciences, and policy and governance.
Intersectionality enhances the efficacy of WASH initiatives and highlights the
imperative to adopt a holistic approach to overcome contemporary challenges.
5.1 Public Health: The Core of WASH
At the forefront of WASH is
public health, wherein WASH interventions serve as essential mechanisms for
disease prevention, nutritional improvement, and maternal health enhancement.
The intricate relationship between poor sanitation and the prevalence of
diseases like cholera and typhoid underscores the necessity of a robust WASH
system. For instance, a randomized controlled trial conducted in rural
Bangladesh demonstrated that improving sanitation access could significantly
reduce the incidence of diarrheal diseases Parvez et al., 2021). Furthermore,
adequate water supply and sanitation facilities directly correlate with
improved maternal health outcomes, highlighting WASH's role as a vehicle for
enhancing overall public health in vulnerable populations (Amaral, 2022).
5.2 Engineering: The Backbone of Infrastructure
Engineering disciplines provide
the necessary framework for designing and constructing adequate WASH
infrastructures such as water treatment facilities, sewage systems, and
hygienic toilets. These structures must not only meet basic functional
requirements but also ensure safe and efficient resource management and
pollution control. The application of innovative engineering solutions in water
treatment can dramatically improve water quality, making it accessible and safe
for consumption. Moreover, the design of public sanitation systems needs to
accommodate the surrounding environment while being sustainable in the long
run. Studies have indicated that well-engineered systems benefit immensely from
adaptive management practices that consider local hydrology and community needs
(Dawkins et al., 2024).
5.3 Environmental Science: Resource and
Pollution Management
Environmental science is integral
to understanding the dynamics surrounding water resources and the ecological
impacts of sanitation practices. Effective resource management is pivotal for
maintaining water quality and ensuring the sustainability of water supply in
the face of growing environmental challenges and climate change. Scientific
assessments have shown that integrated watershed management offers a more
holistic approach to resource management, particularly in regions threatened by
pollution and over-extraction (Kayingo et al., 2022). field contributes
valuable insights that inform better policies and practices aimed at mitigating
pollution and enhancing the resilience of water and sanitation systems.
5.4 Social Sciences: Addressing Behavioral and
Equity Issues
The role of social sciences in
WASH is crucial for understanding human behaviour, gender disparities, and
issues of inclusion and access. WASH interventions must consider the social
dynamics that influence people's attitudes and practices regarding sanitation
and hygiene. For example, behaviour change initiatives that promote handwashing
and safe hygiene practices have been shown to significantly improve health
outcomes in communities (Langenmayr et al., 2024; Rohim & Wulandari, 2019).
Additionally, the social construction of gender significantly impacts access to
WASH services, where women and girls often bear the brunt of inadequate
sanitation facilities, leading to increased vulnerability and health risks
(Moreno et al., 2023). Thus, incorporating social science perspectives is
essential for designing equitable and inclusive WASH programs.
5.5 Policy and Governance: Frameworks for
Implementation
Effective governance and strong
policy frameworks are fundamental to the implementation and sustainability of
WASH initiatives. Policies must be inclusive and focused on addressing
inequities in access while ensuring adequate funding and resource allocation
across sectors. The integration of WASH considerations into existing public
policies requires a concerted effort across various levels of government and
civil society organizations. For instance, governance structures that emphasize
accountability and local participation can lead to improved service delivery
and community trust. As scholars argue, decentralized governance enhances
responsiveness to local needs, thereby fostering better implementation of WASH
policies (Burns, 2021; Cespedes et al., 2022).
5.6 WASH as a Science-Backed, People-Centered
Imperative
To summarize, WASH stands at the
intersection of multiple scientific disciplines, making it a robust and
essential aspect of public health and societal development. By integrating
public health insights, engineering advancements, environmental sciences, social
sciences, and strong policy frameworks, WASH can effectively address the
complex challenges faced today. Stakeholders must recognize WASH not merely as
infrastructure but as an interconnected system requiring a comprehensive
approach to service delivery.
The evolving challenges posed by
climate change, urbanization, and health emergencies underline the importance
of a science-driven and people-centred approach to WASH. As we move towards
achieving global health equity and ensuring dignified living conditions for
all, leveraging WASH's interdisciplinary nature will catalyze meaningful
changes in health outcomes and quality of life across communities.
6. Where
Series Will Go
The impending series aims to
unravel the intrinsic issues within the Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH)
framework by presenting cases that illustrate how WASH failures are symptomatic
of deeper systemic problems. The forthcoming exploration will reveal that these
failures are not merely due to a lack of knowledge regarding WASH
implementation but instead stem from underlying factors such as power dynamics,
neglect, and social injustices entrenched within the systems governing these
vital services.
6.1 Case Study Overview: South Africa's
Sanitation Crisis
The initial article of the
series, titled "Toilets, Contracts, and Capture: The Hidden Cost of
Corruption in South Africa's Sanitation Crisis," will spotlight a
particularly damning illustration of WASH's failings in South Africa. Here, the
narrative will focus on the tragic circumstances surrounding vulnerable
populations, exemplified by children falling into poorly maintained pit
latrines. Dramatizes the broader implications of a sanitation crisis driven by
corrupt practices whereby powerful elites exploit toilet contracts for personal
gain, turning sanitation—a fundamental human right—into a commodity tied to
political capital. The case will underscore how poverty intersects with
corruption, creating dire public health consequences and suffering for
marginalized communities Ramesh et al. (2015).
6.1.1 The Power of Politics in WASH
The sanitation crisis in South
Africa serves as a stark reminder of how power relations can dictate the
quality and availability of essential services (Pande et al., 2018). Corruption
in the awarding and management of sanitation contracts can result in
substandard facilities being constructed, significantly impacting public health
outcomes. Ultimately, it reflects broader societal inequities where access to
safe sanitation becomes a privilege rather than a right (Eurien et al., 2021).
The nexus between sanitation infrastructure, economic interests, and political
capture raises critical questions regarding accountability and citizen
engagement in the management of WASH resources.
6.1.2 Understanding Disease Outcome Correlates
Moreover, analyzing the
implications of WASH failures on disease incidence offers further evidence of
the urgent need for reform. Regions afflicted by substandard sanitation
facilities often experience heightened risks of waterborne diseases such as
cholera and typhoid fever, which disproportionately affect those living in
impoverished conditions. For instance, outbreaks of cholera have been traced to
drinking water contaminated by faecal matter, underscoring the critical
importance of credible sanitation infrastructure and governance (Pande et al.,
2018; Eurien et al., 2021).
As cases of cholera demonstrate,
the occurrence of such outbreaks can be exacerbated by inadequate responses
from health authorities, often influenced by political corruption that favours
profit over public welfare. The cholera outbreak triggered by contaminated
water sources in Uganda illustrates how compromised infrastructure leads to
devastating outcomes for communities already afflicted by poor sanitation
conditions (Hoffman et al., 2023).
6.1.3 Accountability and Governance in WASH
The forthcoming article will
argue for a sustainable and accountable approach to WASH governance wherein the
experiences of affected communities drive the policy framework. The case study
on South Africa will highlight the implications of neglect and corruption, but
will also focus on potential solutions rooted in local community engagement and
improved transparency in the management of WASH resources. As recent studies
indicate, community participation is paramount in ensuring equitable access to
sanitation and hygiene facilities and in fostering accountability among service
providers (Poulos et al., 2011; Zhan et al., 2023).
Moreover, the investigation
emphasizes the necessity of a rigorous approach to monitoring the efficacy of WASH
interventions, including regular assessments of infrastructure quality and
accessibility, to ensure persistent improvement in public health outcomes
(Chakraborty et al., 2024). aligns with the critical need for integrated
strategies that address not only physical infrastructure needs but also the
underlying socio-political determinants of health.
6.1.4 Moving Forward: A Call to Action
As we prepare to dive into these
vital discussions, the intent is to build momentum around the importance of
centring WASH in policy debates and development strategies. By drawing
attention to real-life implications—and the often invisible cost of corruption
and neglect—the series aims to mobilize advocates, policymakers, and
communities toward joint action. Addressing the disparities in WASH access
stands as a testament to our ethical commitment to human rights and global
health equity.
6.2 Water for Profit: How Jakarta's Poor Paid
the Price of Privatization
The narrative of water provision
in Jakarta, Indonesia, serves as a compelling case study illustrating the
far-reaching ramifications of privatization in essential public services. The
move to privatize the water supply was intended to attract investment and
improve service delivery but has instead exacerbated inequalities, leaving
marginalized populations to bear the brunt of a system that profits privatized
interests rather than serving community needs. As the article will explore, the
privatization of water in Jakarta has had profound repercussions on poor
households, leading to critical questions about whether remunicipalization
could offer a pathway to justice.
6.2.1 The Promise of
Privatization
When global water corporations
were invited to manage Jakarta's water supply, promises were made regarding
enhanced efficiency, expanded access, and improved infrastructure. However, the
privatization efforts resulted in a stark dichotomy between affluent and
impoverished communities. Initial studies shed light on the dichotomy, indicating that while wealthier neighbourhoods enjoyed improved water services, poorer communities faced increased tariffs and subpar infrastructure Leong, 2015). The structural inequities embedded in privatized water management
reveal a troubling truth: profits were prioritized over equity, fundamentally
undermining the objectives of improved service delivery and universal access.
The privatization model has not
only shown limited success in generating fairness in service provision but has,
in many instances, led to reduced accountability and transparency in
operations. Reports have indicated that financial mismanagement, corruption,
and inefficiencies have marred many private-sector initiatives, resulting in
water supply shortages and quality issues for low-income families, who are
often left without recourse (Tariq & Zhang, 2021). Thus, while the promise
of better water delivery lingered on the horizon, the reality for many Jakarta
residents was deterioration in both access and quality.
6.2.2 The Impact on Poor
Households
As Jakarta's water privatization
unfolded, its most vulnerable citizens paid the steepest price. Poor households
relying on piped water face exorbitant rates, driving them to seek alternative
sources, which are often contaminated and unsafe. For instance, studies
indicate that communities in less affluent areas lacked reliable access to
clean drinking water, leading to an uptick in waterborne diseases, including
cholera (Waturangi et al., 2013). The paradox of privatization thus became
evident: the very model thought to enhance service delivery ended up exploiting
those least able to afford it.
The systemic neglect witnessed
amidst privatized schemes further aggravated social issues, such as increased
family financial burdens and diminished health outcomes. Community members from
affected neighbourhoods reported significant economic strains due to high water
tariffs, exacerbating the cycle of poverty and limiting access to basic hygiene
practices (Firdaus et al., 2023). For families already grappling with economic
hardships, the added financial burden of accessing clean water served as a
debilitating factor, uprooting their livelihoods and overall well-being.
6.2.3 Speculative Urbanism and
Environmental Costs
Beyond the immediate financial
implications, the privatization of water in Jakarta intersected with broader
themes of speculative urbanism. As private entities sought to profit from water
supplies, the socio-environmental impacts were palpable. Urban algal blooms,
deteriorating freshwater quality, and rising flood risks are just a few of the
environmental challenges exacerbated in the wake of privatized management,
where short-term profits overshadow long-term environmental sustainability
(Colven, 2022). The speculative nature of urban management—prioritizing development
projects for private gain—threatens to dismantle the ecological foundations
necessary for sustainable community living.
In essence, the drive to
commodify water resources resulted in severe social inequities and significant environmental degradation. Jakarta's struggle with pollution from industrial effluents and urban runoff highlights the critical need
for better environmental governance frameworks that integrate water management
with comprehensive urban planning strategies.
2.2.4 Remunicipalization: A
Path to Justice?
Given the challenges that
privatization has posed, discussions surrounding remunicipalization have gained
traction as a potential remedy for Jakarta's water crisis. Remunicipalization
refers to the process of returning water services to public control, advocating
for more equitable management practices that prioritize community needs rather
than profit motives. Early evidence from other cities globally suggests that
remunicipalization can lead to improved service delivery, greater
accountability, and more inclusive decision-making processes (Tariq et al.,
2019; Wu & Leong, 2013).
Re-establishing public control of
water services could pave the way for reforms that ensure basic water access as
a human right, fostering trust and engagement between communities and
governmental bodies. Participatory governance models, which include community
input in decision-making, could empower citizens to reclaim their right to safe
drinking water, creating avenues for enhanced service quality and reduced
public health risks.
Furthermore, for
remunicipalization to be effective, it must be accompanied by comprehensive
policy frameworks that prioritize equity and transparency. Involves not only
re-evaluating current pricing models but also investing in infrastructure
upgrades that address the systemic disparities experienced by poorer neighbourhoods.
The potential for localized solutions is evident; studies have shown that
community-based structures are effective in promoting equitable access while
strengthening local capacity for sustainable management (Lubis et al., 2024).
2.2.5 Conclusion: A Call for Systemic Change
In summary, the privatization of
Jakarta's water services illustrates the troubling outcome of prioritizing
profit over public welfare. As poor households have borne the cost of failed
privatization schemes, the urgent need for systematic change grows clearer.
Remunicipalization poses a viable path toward justice, offering a framework for
addressing the inequities entrenched in current management structures.
However, achieving meaningful
change requires commitment from all stakeholders, grounding solutions in
community needs, environmental considerations, and transparent governance. As the
article highlights, the intersection of social, environmental, and economic
factors within the water sector is critical in shaping a more just and
sustainable future for Jakarta's residents, ensuring that water is managed as a
public good, accessible to all, with the well-being of communities at its core.
6.3 Toilets Without Water: India's Caste Divide
in the Age of Sanitation Missions
The narrative surrounding
sanitation in India has often been celebrated for its ambitious targets,
particularly in light of programs such as the Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM),
designed to achieve an open-defecation-free nation. On paper, the metrics
suggest impressive strides toward improved sanitation access; however, the
lived realities of many communities, especially among marginalized populations,
tell a different story—one of exclusion and systemic inequity. The article
delves into how India's caste divide significantly impacts access to
sanitation, illuminating a critical flaw in the country's sanitation missions.
6.3.1
The Illusion of Progress: Metrics vs.
Reality
In recent years, India has
purportedly made great strides in sanitation, with claims of over 100 million
toilets built and significant reductions in open defecation rates. However,
studies highlight that these achievements do not reflect the on-ground realities
faced by many households, particularly those belonging to Scheduled Castes (SC)
and Scheduled Tribes (ST). For instance, research indicates that households
from these demographics utilize improved sanitation facilities 10% less than
those from forward castes, further entrenching existing inequalities Kumar et
al., 2024). While statistical improvements might commend governmental efforts,
they often mask the lived experiences of many individuals who continue to lack
adequate sanitation infrastructure.
Moreover, the focus on infrastructure often ignores the necessity of connecting toilets to a water supply, as sanitation without water renders these facilities nonfunctional. The critical aspect of water availability is frequently overlooked in sanitation metrics, leading to a façade of progress while systemic barriers continue to impede meaningful change for the most marginalized (Jain et al., 2023). Disconnect reveals the urgent need for a comprehensive approach that addresses not only toilet construction but also the vital necessity for a consistent water supply to enable their proper use.
6.3.2 Caste Dynamics and
Sanitation Access
The existing sanitation framework
in India remains heavily influenced by caste dynamics, with societal norms and
deeply ingrained prejudices shaping access and utility. The neglect of
marginalized communities in the allocation of sanitation resources reaffirms
existing structures of exclusion. Dwelling space becomes a determinant of
access, wherein poor rural and urban residents often lack private toilet
facilities due to socioeconomic constraints (Jain et al., 2023). Such
structural inequalities undermine the effectiveness of sanitation missions and
exacerbate health disparities and social injustices.
Furthermore, while the
construction of toilets is a positive step, it often fails to consider the
socio-cultural barriers that influence sanitation practices. Initiatives must
recognize that the caste system's pervasive influence affects not just access
but attitudes toward sanitation and hygiene practices within the community.
Reports reveal that many low-caste individuals still face stigmatization when
utilizing sanitation facilities, which discourages adoption and contributes to
the persistence of open-defecation practices (Shekhar, 2023).
6.3.3 The Role of Public
Policy and Accountability
Public policy has a pivotal role
in addressing the disparities entrenched in India's sanitation landscape;
however, the SBM has been criticized for primarily focusing on infrastructure
development without adequately addressing the associated socio-cultural issues
(Curtis, 2019). Accountability mechanisms remain crucial in ensuring that
sanitation efforts do not marginalize already disadvantaged groups. While SBM
provides subsidies for toilet construction, insufficient oversight allows for
discrepancies in the actual use and maintenance of these facilities,
perpetuating cycles of exclusion (Sahoo et al., 2015).
Moreover, women face unique
challenges related to sanitation access, often dictated by societal norms and
expectations. A lack of decision-making power in sanitation-related issues
exacerbates gender inequalities and restricts women's ability to advocate for
necessary changes within their communities (Shekhar & Dwivedi, 2024).
Addressing these gendered disparities requires a more integrative approach to
sanitation policy, prioritizing gender-sensitive practices and emphasizing the
importance of women's voices in decision-making processes.
6.3.4 Realizing True
Sanitation Equity
The path to genuine equity in
sanitation requires a multifaceted approach that combines the construction of
safe, functional toilets with robust water supply systems and the promotion of
water and sanitation (WASH) education. Efforts must recognize that sanitation
challenges cannot be resolved through infrastructure alone; they require a
thorough understanding of the socioeconomic and cultural contexts that govern
these communities.
By addressing the overlaps
between sanitation access and caste inequalities, India can work towards
dismantling the systemic barriers that inhibit access. Engaging communities
through participatory methods—where beneficiaries have a voice in the design and
implementation of sanitation solutions—can foster a sense of ownership and
accountability. An empowering approach is essential to ensure that sanitation
interventions genuinely reflect the needs of all community members,
particularly the marginalized (Dandabathula et al., 2019).
In conclusion, while India's
sanitation missions may present statistics that appear favourable, they often
obscure the profound realities of caste-based inequities. For actual progress
to be realized, authorities must transcend mere metrics and commit to inclusive
sanitation strategies that prioritize equity and social justice. Only then can
the goal of a genuinely open-defecation-free India become a lived reality for
all citizens, irrespective of their caste or social standing.
6.4 Lead in the Pipes, Silence in the Halls: The
Flint Water Crisis and Racialized WASH Failure
The Flint water crisis emerged as
one of the most significant public health emergencies in recent American
history, revealing the intersection of environmental justice, systemic racism,
and government negligence. The story of Flint, Michigan—a city plagued by
contaminated drinking water and an ineffective government response—serves as a
harrowing example of how public health crises disproportionately affect
marginalized communities. Despite being part of a wealthier and ostensibly
developed nation, Flint's residents faced a poisoned water supply and a silent
government, which highlights broader issues of inequality embedded within the
Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) framework.
6.4.1 The Crisis Unfolds: A
Breach of Trust
The Flint water crisis began in
April 2014 when the city switched its water supply from Lake Huron to the
highly corrosive Flint River, a decision made under a state-appointed emergency
manager aiming to cut costs amid a financial downturn. Crucially, the water from the Flint River was not treated with anti-corrosives, resulting in lead leaching from ageing pipes into the drinking water Kruger et al., 2017; Reuben et al., 2022). The immediate impacts of the decision were profound, with
residents reporting foul-smelling and discoloured water yet facing a deafening
silence from local and state officials who failed to recognize or address the
emerging issue until significant public health consequences were evident
(Kruger et al., 2017; Heard‐Garris et al., 2017).
Silence and lack of accountability revealed a
systemic disregard for the predominantly Black and low-income population of
Flint, exacerbating feelings of distrust towards governmental institutions. Many residents voiced concerns over not just the water quality but their broader safety, health, and economic well-being, which were further destabilized by governmental mismanagement (Lee et al., 2016; Brooks & Patel, 2020). The psychological impact of these experiences has been profound,
contributing to increases in anxiety, depression, and stress-related disorders
among community members (Brooks & Patel, 2020).
6.4.2 Neurodevelopmental
Impacts and Long-Term Consequences
The public health repercussions
of lead exposure in Flint cannot be overstated. Research has shown that
childhood lead exposure leads to declines in cognitive function and behavioural
problems, with long-term consequences such as lower academic performance and
increased rates of behavioural disorders (Lee et al., 2022). The role of lead
as a neurotoxin places Flint's children at an increased risk of enduring
developmental challenges that they may carry into adulthood (Reuben et al.,
2022). Furthermore, studies indicate that the crisis has triggered long-term
impacts that may manifest in increased mental health issues and socioeconomic
mobility challenges as these children grow up (Hammer, 2017).
Public health responses have
often failed to address the depth of these issues adequately, revealing gaps in
understanding the socioeconomic background of affected populations. Flint
residents have experienced the compounded effects of systemic racism,
environmental injustice, and economic hardship long before the water crisis
emerged, leading to heightened vulnerability during and after the crisis (Key
et al., 2024; Rosinger & Young, 2020). The attention paid to the immediate
health impacts of contaminated water, while important, must be complemented by
efforts to understand and mitigate these long-term consequences effectively.
6.4.3 Race, Class, and
Environmental Justice
The Flint water crisis
encapsulates a profound intersection of race and environmental justice, where
governmental decisions exacerbated existing inequalities. Historical patterns
of neglect towards communities of colour outline how decisions made at the
state level failed to consider the voices of marginalized populations (Hammer,
2017). The Flint emergency manager's decision to switch water sources not only
overlooked the potential health impacts but also sidelined community protests
and concerns, leading to an exacerbation of distrust and disillusionment among
residents (Lee et al., 2016; Stanley, 2016).
Community activism has been a
critical response to failure, with Flint residents mobilizing to demand
accountability and effective responses from their government. Grassroots
organizations have played a pivotal role in amplifying community voices and
advocating for necessary governmental changes, highlighting the importance of
self-advocacy in the face of systemic neglect (Roy & Edwards, 2019). Still,
the need for institutional reforms remains urgent, particularly in fostering
governmental frameworks that prioritize the health and welfare of vulnerable
populations.
6.3.4 Towards Resilience and
Restorative Justice
The trajectory towards repairing
the harm caused by the Flint water crisis involves more than merely restoring
access to clean water; it requires a commitment to restorative justice that
acknowledges historical wrongs and actively seeks to redress systemic
inequality. The restorative approach necessitates active community engagement
in policy formulation and implementation, ensuring that affected voices lead
the way in promoting social equity (Foote & Leon, 2023). Furthermore,
comprehensive public health strategies must prioritize long-term health
monitoring and intervention programs to address the acute and chronic health
effects experienced by Flint residents, particularly children who remain
vulnerable to the impacts of lead exposure.
In addition, effective remediation
measures hinge on integrating WASH policies with broader public health
frameworks that account for the socioeconomic and racialized contexts of
affected communities. Integration can enhance resilience and empowerment among
residents, ensuring that their experiences and insights shape future
interventions that strive for not only recovery but also meaningful systemic
change (Rosen et al., 2017).
6.3.5 Conclusion: Lessons from
Flint
The Flint water crisis is a
glaring example of how failures in WASH infrastructure and governance can lead
to devastating outcomes for marginalized communities. The interplay of toxic
water, racialized neglect, and political indifference constitutes a public
health tragedy that underscores the systemic need for reform in both water
safety and public health policy. Policymakers must acknowledge the historical
and contemporary factors contributing to such crises, leveraging the lessons of
Flint to foster transparency, accountability, and justice in environmental
management going forward.
Ultimately, the fight for clean
water in Flint reflects a broader struggle for social justice, where the voices
of marginalized communities must be at the forefront in shaping the narratives,
policies, and practices that affect their lives. Addressing the inequities of
the Flint water crisis demands a commitment that goes beyond remediation—it
requires a fundamental reshaping of how society values and protects the health
of all its members, re-establishing trust in the very institutions that are
sworn to serve and protect.
6.5 Water Belongs to the People: Chile's
Constitutional Battle Against Oligarchic Control
In recent years, Chile's water
crisis has crystallized the fundamental struggle over access to water as a
human right and the need for equitable governance of critical resources. The article
explores the historical context of water privatization in Chile, particularly
during the dictatorship of General Augusto Pinochet, and the mechanisms through
which commodification has marginalized indigenous populations and vulnerable
communities. At the heart of the issue lies a critical question: can drafting a
new constitution reclaim water as a common good and address the systemic
inequalities perpetuated by decades of oligarchic control?
6.5.1 Privatization and Its
Consequences
In 1981, under Pinochet's regime, Chile implemented a neoliberal economic framework that introduced its notorious Water Code, establishing private ownership over water resources García-Bartolomei et al., 2022; Budds, 2013). transformation permitted water
rights to be treated as tradable commodities, exacerbating inequalities and
concentrating control within a few oligarchic entities. For indigenous
communities, particularly farmers reliant on subsistence agriculture, this
meant reduced access to water, leading to dire consequences for their
livelihoods (Correa et al., 2020) (Sola et al., 2024). The water scarcity
issues plaguing rural regions have fueled social discontent, highlighting the
tensions between economic growth driven by mining interests and the rights of
local populations.
Research indicates that
neoliberal water policies have disproportionately affected marginalized groups,
including indigenous farmers, who often lack formal water rights essential for
accessing vital resources (Garreaud et al., 2017; Correa et al., 2020). The
commodification of water has, therefore, not only restricted access but also
undermined traditional practices tied to indigenous communities' cultural
identity and agricultural sustainability.
6.5.2 The Drought and Its
Impacts
Chile has been grappling with
extreme drought conditions for over a decade, exacerbating the existing water
crisis and highlighting the vulnerabilities of its water management systems
(Ocampo‐Melgar
et al., 2021); (Salinas & Marín, 2023).
Recent climatic analyses link prolonged drought to both human-managed changes
in water allocation through privatization and environmental factors such as
climate change (Jackson et al., 2019; Macpherson & Salazar, 2020). The
interplay of these issues has heightened tensions surrounding water use among
diverse stakeholders, leading to conflicts over water distribution and
exacerbating inequality.
Furthermore, the drought has
fueled calls for the re-evaluation of water policies and the urgent need for
effective governance frameworks that prioritize community access rather than
market-based solutions. As water scarcity intensifies, the need for a new
constitutional approach that addresses both environmental sustainability and
social equity has become increasingly apparent (Baer, 2017).
6.5.3 The Role of Social
Movements
In response to the systemic
oppression encountered under privatized water governance, various social
movements have emerged, emphasizing water as a fundamental human right and a
common good. These movements have mobilized public sentiment in favour of
constitutional reforms aimed at ensuring equitable access to water resources.
Notably, the 2019 nationwide protests that erupted in Chile catalyzed
discussions about the necessity of a new constitution, framing water governance
within a broader discourse of social justice and environmental stewardship
(Lozano‐Parra
et al., 2021); (Garbe, 2022;
The prominent "water
commons" agenda reflects the desires of communities to reclaim control
over water resources through a collective governance model that emphasizes
communal ownership and the collaborative management of water systems (Salinas
& Marín, 2023). Indigenous groups have been instrumental in advocating for
constitutional changes, seeking recognition of their rights to water resources
and the protection of traditional practices that sustain their communities.
6.5.4 The Constitutional
Process and Future Prospects
The constitutional process
currently underway in Chile represents a historic opportunity to address the
inequities perpetuated by previous water management policies. After the
drafting of a new constitution, citizen consultations played a key role in
articulating diverse perspectives on water rights and governance. Proposals to declare
water a typical suitable and institutional mechanism for its equitable
distribution have gained traction, fostering optimism that grassroots movements
can reshape policy agendas (Aitken et al., 2016; Budds, 2013).
To effectively reclaim water
rights for all, the new constitution must establish strong legal protections
and institutional frameworks that prioritize community engagement,
sustainability, and equity in water governance. Academic and policy discussions
have emphasized the importance of incorporating indigenous perspectives and
knowledge systems into broader water management strategies (Garbe, 2022;
Alipour et al., 2018). Reconceptualization not only champions inclusivity but
also recognizes the intrinsic connections between water, cultural heritage, and
socioeconomic sustainability.
6.5.5 A Path
to Equitable Water Governance
In conclusion, the fight to
redefine water governance in Chile encapsulates broader struggles for social
justice and environmental sustainability. The interplay between past injustices
and present realities necessitates comprehensive reform that centres on
participatory governance and recognizes water as a planetary common good.
As Chile navigates its
constitutional battle, the outcomes will not only impact the nation but may set
important precedents for addressing water rights and governance in similar
contexts worldwide. Embracing a holistic approach that prioritizes equity, respect
for Indigenous rights, and environmental resilience can pave the way for a more
just water future—one that truly belongs to the people.
7. Conclusion:
Make WASH Political. Make It Public.
Series has illuminated the multifaceted nature
of Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) as more than just infrastructure—it is
a fundamental site of resistance, transformation, and social justice. The
stories from South Africa, Indonesia, India, the USA, and Chile have showcased
how WASH is entangled with issues of power, neglect, and inequality across
different contexts. As we move forward, it is imperative to elevate the
discourse surrounding WASH from the back rooms of bureaucracy to the frontlines
of justice.
WASH is power; its control
reflects a society's values and priorities. Communities that are deprived of
access to clean water and sanitation are often marginalized and
disenfranchised, facing systemic barriers that go beyond mere infrastructural
inadequacies. These barriers are deeply rooted in socioeconomic disparities,
historical injustices, and racial inequities, as evidenced in the case studies
presented. The Flint water crisis exemplifies how vulnerable populations can
bear the brunt of governmental neglect and systemic racism, leading to dire public
health outcomes and diminished trust in institutions Kruger et al. (2017).
Furthermore, the stark realities
faced by indigenous farmers in Chile and poor households in Jakarta reveal that
water privatization and commodification have failed to serve the needs of the
most vulnerable (Correa et al., 2020). The narratives of exclusion and
disenfranchisement compel us to reassess our understanding of WASH as a human
right—a right that must be claimed and defended through active civic engagement
and structural transformation. Failing to recognize such disparities only
perpetuates cycles of injustice, underscoring the need for communities to
organize and demand accountability in public health policies that influence
their lives.
Effective WASH governance must
embrace political engagement and public discourse centred on human rights. As
Gusmano et al. articulate, persistent inequalities in health services highlight
the need for actionable policies that prioritize equity in health systems
(Gusmano et al., 2017). The lesson from Flint and the privatization failures in
Chile signal the necessity to transform WASH into an active political issue
rather than a mere administrative concern. Through advocacy and grassroots
movements, communities can shift the narrative around WASH from a state of
neglect to one that prioritizes access, inclusion, and agency.
Moreover, the potential for
remunicipalization in places like Jakarta lays bare the opportunity for
communities to reclaim ownership of their water resources, ensuring that they
are managed for collective benefit rather than profit (Ocampo‐Melgar
et al., 2021). Similarly, the ongoing constitutional debate in Chile reflects
an emerging recognition that water belongs to the people and that their rights
must be enshrined in law to overcome the legacy of oligarchic control (Sola et
al., 2024).
In conclusion, it is essential to
activate WASH as a political topic through collective mobilization that
emphasizes the need for equitable access, participatory governance, and social
justice. Only then can we begin to dismantle the systemic structures that
render water a privilege rather than a right. WASH is undeniably a cornerstone
of public health, but it also embodies the larger struggle for justice in
society. By standing together, demanding change, and advocating for the rights
of all individuals to access clean water and sanitation, we can begin to create
a future where WASH serves as a mechanism of empowerment rather than exclusion.
References :
Ahmed, J., Wong, L P., Chua, Y P., Hydrie,
M Z I., Channa, N. (2021). Drinking water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH)
situation in primary schools of Pakistan: the impact of WASH-related
interventions and policy on children's school performance. *Environmental Science
and Pollution Research*, 29(1). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-15681-w
Aitken, D., Rivera, D., Godoy-Faúndez, A.,
Holzapfel, E. (2016). Water Scarcity and the Impact of the Mining and
Agricultural Sectors in Chile. *Sustainability*, 8(2).
https://doi.org/10.3390/su8020128
Al-Hamawi, H., Davies, P., Mayouf, M.,
Nikologianni, A. (2025). Sustainability of Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene
(WASH) in Post-Emergency Contexts: A Conceptual Framework. *Water*, 17(2).
https://doi.org/10.3390/w17020280
Alipour, A., Hashemi, S., Shokri, S B S.,
Moravej, M. (2018). Spatio-temporal analysis of groundwater level in an arid
area. *International Journal of Water*, 12(1).
https://doi.org/10.1504/ijw.2018.090185
Altare, C., Kahi, V., Ngwa, M C.,
Goldsmith, A., Hering, H., Burton, A., Spiegel, P. (2019). Infectious disease
epidemics in refugee camps: a retrospective analysis of UNHCR data (2009-2017).
*Journal of Global Health Reports*, 3. https://doi.org/10.29392/joghr.3.e2019064
Amaral, A. (2022). Equity in Higher
Education: Evidence, Policies and Practices. Setting the Scene. **, .
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-69691-7_2
Baer, M. (2017). Introduction. **, .
https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190693152.003.0001
Behnke, N., Cronk, R., Snel, M., Moffa, M.,
Tu, R., Banner, B., Folz, C., Anderson, D M., Macintyre, A., Stowe, E.,
Bartram, J. (2018). Improving environmental conditions for involuntarily
displaced populations: water, sanitation, and hygiene in orphanages, prisons,
and refugee and IDP settlements. *Journal of Water Sanitation and Hygiene for
Development*, 8(4). https://doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2018.019
Bohnet, H., Rüegger, S. (2021). Refugees
and Covidâ€19: Beyond Health Risks to Insecurity. *Swiss Political Science
Review*, 27(2). https://doi.org/10.1111/spsr.12466
Brooks, S K., Patel, S S. (2020).
Psychological consequences of the Flint Water Crisis: A systematic review. **,
. https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.05.30.20117952
Brouwer, A F., Eisenberg, M C., Bakker, K
M., Boerger, S., Zahid, M H., Freeman, M C., Eisenberg, J N. (2022). Leveraging
infectious disease models to interpret randomized controlled trials:
controlling enteric pathogen transmission through water, sanitation, and
hygiene interventions. **, . https://doi.org/10.1101/2022.04.28.22274441
Budds, J. (2013). Water, Power, and the
Production of Neoliberalism in Chile, 1973†"2005. *Environment and
Planning D Society and Space*, 31(2). https://doi.org/10.1068/d9511
Burns, E. (2021). Weaving Diversity into
LIS Instruction: Equity Behaviors to Create the Tapestry of Inclusive Library
Practice. *Iasl Annual Conference Proceedings*, .
https://doi.org/10.29173/iasl8275
Cespedes, M., Das, M., Hojilla, J C.,
Blumenthal, J., Mounzer, K., Ramgopal, M., Hodge, T., Torres, T S., Peterson, C
M., Shibase, S., Elliott, A., Demidont, A C., Callaghan, L., Watson, C C.,
Carter, C C., Kintu, A., Baeten, J M., Ogbuagu, O. (2022). Proactive strategies
to optimize engagement of Black, Hispanic/Latinx, transgender, and nonbinary
individuals in a trial of a novel agent for HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis
(PrEP). *Plos One*, 17(6). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0267780
Chakraborty, S., Dutta, P., Pal, A.,
Chakraborty, S., Banik, G., Halder, P., Gope, A., Miyoshi, S., Das, S. (2024).
Intranasal immunization of mice with the chimaera of Salmonella Typhi protein
elicits protective intestinal immunity. *NPJ Vaccines*, 9(1).
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41541-024-00812-4
Chen, W., Zhang, Y., Mi, J. (2024).
Assessing Antibiotic-Resistant Genes in University Dormitory Washing Machines.
*Microorganisms*, 12(6). https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms12061112
Chirgwin, H., Cairncross, S., Zehra, D.,
Waddington, H. (2021). Interventions promoting uptake of water, sanitation and
hygiene (WASH) technologies in low†and middleâ€income countries: An
evidence and gap map of effectiveness studies. *Campbell Systematic Reviews*,
17(4). https://doi.org/10.1002/cl2.1194
Coffeng, L E., Nery, S V., Gray, D J.,
Bakker, R., Vlas, S J d., Clements, A C A. (2018). Predicted short and
long-term impact of deworming and water, hygiene, and sanitation on
transmission of soil-transmitted helminths. *Plos Neglected Tropical Diseases*,
12(12). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0006758
Colven, E. (2022). Political ecology of
speculative urbanism: The role of financial and environmental speculation in
Jakarta’s water crisis. *Environment and Planning a Economy and Space*,
55(2). https://doi.org/10.1177/0308518x221110883
Correa, J., Vergaraâ€Perucich, F.,
Aguirre, C. (2020). Water Privatization and Inequality: Gini Coefficient for
Water Resources in Chile. *Water*, 12(12). https://doi.org/10.3390/w12123369
Curtis, V. (2019). Explaining the outcomes
of the 'Clean India' campaign: institutional behaviour and sanitation
transformation in India. *BMJ Global Health*, 4(5).
https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2019-001892
Dalisay, S N M., Lumangaya, C R., Guzman, L
M C d., Leong, R N F., Siao, T G., Leonardia, J A., Verya, C d., Belizario, V
Y. (2024). A qualitative analysis of the implementation of the water,
sanitation, and hygiene in schools program in the Philippines using the One
Health lens. *International Journal of One Health*,
https://doi.org/10.14202/ijoh.2024.1-11
Dandabathula, G., Bhardwaj, P., Burra, M.,
Rao, P P., Rao, S S. (2019). Impact assessment of India's Swachh Bharat Mission
†"Clean India Campaign on acute diarrheal disease outbreaks: Yes, there
is a positive change. *Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care*, 8(3).
https://doi.org/10.4103/jfmpc.jfmpc_144_19
Dawkins, B., Shinkins, B., Ensor, T.,
Jayne, D., Meads, D. (2024). Incorporating healthcare access and equity in
economic evaluations: a scoping review of guidelines. *International Journal of
Technology Assessment in Health Care*, 40(1). https://doi.org/10.1017/s0266462324000618
Dreibelbis, R., Winch, P J., Leontsini, E.,
Hulland, K R S., Ram, P K., Unicomb, L., Luby, S P. (2013). The Integrated
Behavioural Model for Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene: a Systematic Review of Behavioural
Models and a framework for Designing and evaluating behaviour change
interventions in infrastructure-restricted settings. *BMC Public Health*,
13(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-13-1015
Eurien, D., Mirembe, B B., Musewa, A.,
Kisaakye, E., Kwesiga, B., Ogole, F., Ayen, D O., Kadobera, D., Bulage, L.,
Ario, A R., Zhu, B. (2021). Cholera outbreak caused by drinking unprotected
well water contaminated with faeces from an open storm water drainage: Kampala
City, Uganda, January 2019. *BMC Infectious Diseases*, 21(1).
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12879-021-07011-9
Firdaus, M R., Thoha, H., Rachman, A.,
Fitriya, N., Sianturi, O R., Intan, M D B., Prayitno, H B., Lastrini, S.,
Bayhaqi, A., Nasution, A. (2023). Study of plankton in Jakarta Bay and
surrounding Java Sea: a comparison of community and water quality. *Iop
Conference Series Earth and Environmental Science*, 1271(1).
https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/1271/1/012040
Foote, A C., Leon, C d. (2023). Origins of
the Flint Water Crisis: Uneven Development, Urban Political Ecology, and Racial
Capitalism. *City and Community*, 22(4). https://doi.org/10.1177/15356841231207626
Garbe, S. (2022). Epilogue - Towards a
Reconstitution. **, . https://doi.org/10.14361/9783839458259-010
GarcÃa-Bartolomei, E., Vásquez, V.,
Rebolledo, G., Vivallo, A., Acuña-Ruz, T., Rebolledo, J., Orrego, R., Barra,
R. (2022). Defining Priority Areas for the Sustainable Development of the
Desalination Industry in Chile: A GIS Multi-Criteria Analysis Approach.
*Sustainability*, 14(13). https://doi.org/10.3390/su14137772
Garreaud, R., Ãlvarez-Garretón, C.,
Barichivich, J., Boisier, J P., Christie, D A., Galleguillos, M., LeQuesne, C.,
McPhee, J., Zambranoâ€Bigiarini, M. (2017). The 2010†"2015 mega drought
in Central Chile: Impacts on regional hydroclimate and vegetation. **, .
https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-2017-191
Gusmano, M K., Rodwin, V G., Weisz, D.
(2017). Persistent Inequalities in Health and Access to Health Services:
Evidence From New York City. *World Medical & Health Policy*, 9(2).
https://doi.org/10.1002/wmh3.226
Hammer, P J. (2017). The Flint Water
Crisis, the Karegnondi Water Authority and Strategic†"Structural Racism.
*Critical Sociology*, 45(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/0896920517729193
Heardâ€, Garris, N., Roche, J., Carter, P.,
Abir, M., Walton, M A., Zimmerman, M A., Cunningham, R M. (2017). Voices from
Flint: Community Perceptions of the Flint Water Crisis. *Journal of Urban
Health*, 94(6). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-017-0152-3
Hoffman, S A., LeBoa, C., Date, K., Haldar,
P., Harvey, P., Shimpi, R., An, Q., Zhang, C., Jayaprasad, N., Horng, L.,
Fagerli, K., Borhade, P., Daruwalla, S., Dharmapalan, D., Gavhane, J., Joshi,
S., Kumar, R., Rathod, V., Shetty, K., Warrier, D S., Yadav, S S., Chakraborty,
D., Bahl, S., Katkar, A., Kunwar, A., Yewale, V., Andrews, J R., Bhatnagar, P.,
Dutta, S., Luby, S P. (2023). Programmatic Effectiveness of a Pediatric Typhoid
Conjugate Vaccine Campaign in Navi Mumbai, India. *Clinical Infectious Diseases*,
77(1). https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciad132
Hossain, A N M Z. (2021). Sustainable
Development and Livelihoods of Rohingya Refugees in Bangladesh: The Effects of
COVID-19. *International Journal of Sustainable Development and Planning*,
16(6). https://doi.org/10.18280/ijsdp.160615
Jackson, S., MacDonald, D H., Bark, R H.
(2019). Public Attitudes to Inequality in Water Distribution: Insights From
Preferences for Water Reallocation From Irrigators to Aboriginal Australians.
*Water Resources Research*, 55(7). https://doi.org/10.1029/2019wr025011
Jain, A., Kumar, A., Kim, R., Subramanian,
S V. (2023). Prevalence of zero-sanitation in India: Patterns of change across
the states and Union Territories, 1993-2021. *Journal of Global Health*, 13.
https://doi.org/10.7189/jogh.13.04082
Kabir, M., Afzal, M S., Khan, A., Ahmed, H.
(2020). COVID-19 pandemic and economic cost; impact on forcibly displaced
people. *Travel Medicine and Infectious Disease*, 35.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmaid.2020.101661
Kayingo, G., Bradley-Guidry, C., Burwell,
N., Suzuki, S., Dorough, R., Bester, V. (2022). Assessing and benchmarking
equity, diversity, and inclusion in healthcare professions. *Jaapa*, 35(11).
https://doi.org/10.1097/01.jaa.0000885184.50730.94
Key, K., Shannon, K., Graham, E., Duhart,
C., Tello, T., Mays, C., Mays, C., Brady, T., Hall, J., Calvin, K., Blanchard,
C., Danzine, V d., Bailey, S. (2024). Advancing Equity through Effective Youth
Engagement in Public Health to Operationalize Racism as a Public Health Crisis:
The Flint Public Health Youth Academy Model. *Youth*, 4(1).
https://doi.org/10.3390/youth4010028
Kruger, D J., Cupal, S., Franzen, S.,
Kodjebacheva, G., Bailey, E S., Key, K., Kaufman, M M. (2017). Toxic trauma:
Household water quality experiences predict posttraumatic stress disorder
symptoms during the Flint, Michigan, water crisis. *Journal of Community
Psychology*, 45(7). https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.21898
Kruger, D J., Cupal, S., Kodjebacheva, G.,
Fockler, T V. (2017). Perceived Water Quality and Reported Health among Adults
during the Flint, MI Water Crisis. *Californian Journal of Health Promotion*,
15(1). https://doi.org/10.32398/cjhp.v15i1.1889
Kumar, P., Hasan, N., Rajak, R. (2024).
Utilization of improved sanitation facilities: Does socioeconomic inequality
persist in India? **, . https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4377870/v1
Langenmayr, T., Splitter, V., Tienari, J.,
Vesa, M. (2024). Moving from the Business Case Towards an Equity-Based
Approach: Theorizing Diversity and Inclusion in Open Strategy. *Organization
Theory*, 5(3). https://doi.org/10.1177/26317877241275119
Lee, H., Lee, M., Warren, J R., Ferrie, J
P. (2022). Childhood lead exposure is associated with lower cognitive
functioning at older ages. *Science Advances*, 8(45).
https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abn5164
Lee, S J., Krings, A., Rose, S., Dover, K.,
Ayoub, J., Salman, F. (2016). Racial inequality and the implementation of
emergency management laws in economically distressed urban areas. *Children and
Youth Services Review*, 70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2016.08.016
Lehmann, P. (2010). JUSTIFYING A POLICY MIX
FOR POLLUTION CONTROL: A REVIEW OF ECONOMIC LITERATURE. *Journal of Economic
Surveys*, 26(1). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6419.2010.00628.x
Leong, C. (2015). Persistently Biased: The
Devil Shift in Water Privatization in Jakarta. *Review of Policy Research*,
32(5). https://doi.org/10.1111/ropr.12138
Lozanoâ€Parra, J., Fernández, M P.,
Velarde, J G. (2021). The Availability of Water in Chile: A Regional View from
a Geographical Perspective. **, . https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92169
Lubis, P Y., Shahri, B., Ramirez, M.
(2024). Fostering Community Empowerment: A Human-Centered Approach to Designing
Clean Water Solutions in a Jakarta Slum. *Journal of Developing Societies*,
40(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/0169796x231222058
Macpherson, E., Salazar, P W. (2020).
Towards a Holistic Environmental Flow Regime in Chile: Providing for Ecosystem
Health and Indigenous Rights. *Transnational Environmental Law*, 9(3).
https://doi.org/10.1017/s2047102520000254
Mahamud, A., Ahmed, J., Nyoka, R., Auko,
E., Kahi, V., Ndirangu, J., Nguhi, M., Burton, J W., Muhindo, B Z., Breiman, R
F., Eidex, R B. (2011). Epidemic cholera in Kakuma Refugee Camp, Kenya, 2009:
the importance of sanitation and soap. *The Journal of Infection in Developing
Countries*, 6(3). https://doi.org/10.3855/jidc.1966
Momberg, D., Ngandu, C., Vothâ€Gaeddert, L
E., Ribeiro, K., May, J., Norris, S A., Saidâ€Mohamed, R. (2020). Water,
sanitation and hygiene (WASH) in sub-Saharan Africa and associations with
undernutrition, and governance in children under five years of age: a
systematic review. *Journal of Developmental Origins of Health and Disease*,
12(1). https://doi.org/10.1017/s2040174419000898
Moreno, J V., Marshall, D R., Girard, A S.,
Mitchell, N., Minissian, M., Coleman, B. (2023). An Organizational Commitment
to Diversity, Equity, Inclusion, and Justice. *Nursing Administration
Quarterly*, 48(1). https://doi.org/10.1097/naq.0000000000000611
Morgan, C., Bowling, M., Bartram, J.,
Kayser, G. (2017). Water, sanitation, and hygiene in schools: Status and
implications of low coverage in Ethiopia, Kenya, Mozambique, Rwanda, Uganda,
and Zambia. *International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health*,
220(6). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheh.2017.03.015
Neto, S. (2018). Territorial Integration of
Water Management in the City. **, . https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.72876
Nyambe, S., Yamauchi, T. (2021). Peri-urban
water, sanitation and hygiene in Lusaka, Zambia: photovoice empowering local
assessment via ecological theory. *Global Health Promotion*, 29(3).
https://doi.org/10.1177/1757975921995713
Ocampoâ€Melgar, A., BarrÃa, P., Chadwick,
C., Villoch, P. (2021). Restoration perceptions and collaboration challenges
under severe water scarcity: the Aculeo Lake process. *Restoration Ecology*,
29(2). https://doi.org/10.1111/rec.13337
Pande, G., Kwesiga, B., Bwire, G., Kalyebi,
P., Riolexus, A., Matovu, J K B., Makumbi, F., Mugerwa, S., Musinguzi, J.,
Wanyenze, R K., Zhu, B. (2018). Cholera outbreak caused by drinking
contaminated water from a lakeshore water-collection site, Kasese District,
southwestern Uganda, June-July 2015. *Plos One*, 13(6).
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0198431
Parvez, S M., Rahman, M J., Azad, R.,
Rahman, M., Unicomb, L., Ashraf, S., Mondol, M H., Jahan, F., Winch, P J.,
Luby, S P. (2021). Achieving equitable uptake of handwashing and sanitation by
addressing both supply and demand-based constraints: findings from a randomized
controlled trial in rural Bangladesh. *International Journal for Equity in
Health*, 20(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12939-020-01353-7
Pirc, U., Vidmar, M., Mozer, A J., Kržan,
A. (2016). Emissions of microplastic fibres from microfiber fleece during
domestic washing. *Environmental Science and Pollution Research*, 23(21).
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-016-7703-0
Polonsky, J A., Bhatia, S., Fraser, K.,
Hamlet, A., Skarp, J., Stopard, I J., Hugonnet, S., Kaiser, L., Lengeler, C.,
Blanchet, K., Spiegel, P. (2021). Feasibility, Acceptability, and Effectiveness
of Non-Pharmaceutical Interventions for Infectious Disease Prevention and
Control in Crisis-Affected Settings and Informal Settlements: A Scoping Review.
**, . https://doi.org/10.1101/2021.08.20.21262352
Poulos, C., Riewpaiboon, A., Stewart, J F.,
Clemens, J D., Guh, S., Agtini, M D., Sur, D., Islam, Z., Lucas, M.,
Whittington, D. (2011). Costs of illness due to endemic cholera. *Epidemiology
and Infection*, 140(3). https://doi.org/10.1017/s0950268811000513
Ramesh, A., Blanchet, K., Ensink, J H J.,
Roberts, B. (2015). Evidence on the Effectiveness of Water, Sanitation, and
Hygiene (WASH) Interventions on Health Outcomes in Humanitarian Crises: A
Systematic Review. *Plos One*, 10(9). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0124688
Ramesh, A., Blanchet, K., Ensink, J H J.,
Roberts, B. (2015). Evidence on the Effectiveness of Water, Sanitation, and
Hygiene (WASH) Interventions on Health Outcomes in Humanitarian Crises: A
Systematic Review. *Plos One*, 10(9). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0124688
Reuben, A., Moreland, A D., Abdalla, S M.,
Cohen, G H., Friedman, M J., Galea, S., Rothbaum, A O., Schmidt, M G., Vena, J
E., Kilpatrick, D G. (2022). Prevalence of Depression and Posttraumatic Stress
Disorder in Flint, Michigan, 5 Years After the Onset of the Water Crisis. *Jama
Network Open*, 5(9). https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.32556
Rohim, M., Wulandari, T. (2019). Inclusive
Education in the Special Region of Yogyakarta: Equity Pedagogy Perspective.
*Kne Social Sciences*, . https://doi.org/10.18502/kss.v3i17.4666
Rosen, M B., Pokhrel, L R., Weir, M H.
(2017). A discussion about public health, lead and Legionella pneumophila in
drinking water supplies in the United States. *The Science of the Total
Environment*, 590-591. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.02.164
Rosinger, A Y., Young, S L. (2020).
Inâ€Home Tap Water Consumption Trends Changed Among U.S. Children, but Not
Adults, Between 2007 and 2016. *Water Resources Research*, 56(7).
https://doi.org/10.1029/2020wr027657
Roy, S., Edwards, M. (2019). Citizen
Science During the Flint, Michigan Federal Water Emergency: Ethical Dilemmas
and Lessons Learned. *Citizen Science Theory and Practice*, 4(1).
https://doi.org/10.5334/cstp.154
Sahoo, K C., Hulland, K R S., Caruso, B A.,
Swain, R., Freeman, M C., Panigrahi, P., Dreibelbis, R. (2015).
Sanitation-related psychosocial stress: A grounded theory study of women across
the life-course in Odisha, India. *Social Science & Medicine*, 139.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.06.031
Saifee, J., Francoâ€Paredes, C.,
Lowenstein, S R. (2021). Refugee Health During COVID-19 and Future Pandemics.
*Current Tropical Medicine Reports*, 8(3).
https://doi.org/10.1007/s40475-021-00245-2
Salinas, R T., MarÃn, A Ã. (2023). Water Commons
as a socioenvironmental project for the 21st century in Chile. *Water Policy*,
25(2). https://doi.org/10.2166/wp.2023.099
Setyono, J S., Handayani, W., Rudiarto, I.,
Esariti, L. (2018). Resilience Concept in Indonesian Small Town Development and
Planning: a Case of Lasem, Central Java. *E3s Web of Conferences*, 68.
https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/20186801027
Shannon, K., Hast, M., Azman, A S., Legros,
D., McKay, H., Lessler, J. (2019). Cholera prevention and control in refugee
settings: Successes and continued challenges. *Plos Neglected Tropical
Diseases*, 13(6). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0007347
Shapna, K J., Hasan, K., Kabir, K H., Li,
J., Hossain, L. (2023). Water, sanitation and hygiene challenges of forcibly
displaced Myanmar nationals in Rohingya camps in Bangladesh. *Journal of Water
and Health*, 21(10). https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2023.045
Shekhar, S. (2023). Sanitising India or
Cementing Injustice? Scrutinizing the Swachh Bharat Mission in India. *Caste /
a Global Journal on Social Exclusion*, 4(1).
https://doi.org/10.26812/caste.v4i1.418
Shekhar, S., Dwivedi, A. (2024). Gendered
Disparities in Water and Sanitation through an Intersectional Lens: Emphasising
Women’s Perspectives. *Space and Culture India*, 11(4).
https://doi.org/10.20896/saci.v11i4.1410
Sola, I., Zarzo, D., Sánchezâ€Lizaso, J
L., Sáez, C A. (2024). Multi-criteria analysis for sustainable and
cost-effective development of desalination plants in Chile. *Frontiers in
Marine Science*, 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2024.1358308
Stanley, J. (2016). The Emergency Manager:
Strategic Racism, Technocracy, and the Poisoning of Flint's Children. *The Good
Society*, 25(1). https://doi.org/10.5325/goodsociety.25.1.0001
Stout, R C., Feasey, N., Péchayre, M.,
Thomson, N D., Chilima, B. (2025). Time to invest in cholera.
*Eclinicalmedicine*, 80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eclinm.2024.103044
Suryani, D., Yetiani, N., Mamahit, A Y.,
Akbar, H., Rahmawati, A., Amartani, R., Sunarti, S., Abbani, A Y., Maretalinia,
M. (2023). The water supply service during the COVID-19 pandemic among people
of concern in Nigeria. *International Journal of Public Health Science
(Ijphs)*, 12(2). https://doi.org/10.11591/ijphs.v12i2.22711
Tariq, S., Zhang, X. (2021). A critical
analysis of water PPP failures in sub-Saharan Africa. *Engineering Construction
& Architectural Management*, 29(8).
https://doi.org/10.1108/ecam-01-2021-0084
Tariq, S., Zhang, X., Leung, R H M. (2019).
An analytical review of failed water public†"private partnerships in
developing countries. *Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers -
Management Procurement and Law*, 172(2). https://doi.org/10.1680/jmapl.18.00042
Taylor, D., Kahawita, T., Cairncross, S.,
Ensink, J H J. (2015). The Impact of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene
Interventions to Control Cholera: A Systematic Review. *Plos One*, 10(8). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0135676
Tseole, N P., Mindu, T., Kalinda, C.,
Chimbari, M J. (2022). Barriers and facilitators to Water, Sanitation and
Hygiene (WaSH) practices in Southern Africa: A scoping review. *Plos One*,
17(8). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0271726
Waturangi, D E., Wennars, M., Suhartono, M
X., Wijaya, Y F. (2013). Edible ice in Jakarta, Indonesia, is contaminated with
multidrug-resistant Vibrio cholerae with virulence potential. *Journal of
Medical Microbiology*, 62(3). https://doi.org/10.1099/jmm.0.048769-0
Wu, X., Leong, C. (2013). The French model
and water challenges in developing countries: Evidence from Jakarta and Manila.
*Policy and Society*, 32(2). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polsoc.2013.05.004
Wu, Z., Wang, L. (2010). Model-driven
simulation for cross-domain policy enforcement. **, .
https://doi.org/10.4108/icst.trustcol.2010.5
Zhan, Y., Gu, H., Li, X. (2023). Study on
association factors of intestinal infectious diseases based-Bayesian
spatio-temporal model. *BMC Infectious Diseases*, 23(1).
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12879-023-08665-3
No comments:
Post a Comment